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1
leaders are elected, the ability to get support from voters provides a type of
political power resource.
4. Influence over bureaucracies constitutes a power resource that may be used by
elected politicians. Other actors, for example companies, can also exercise great
influence on parts of the government apparatus. In some cases, government
officials exercise power in ways where they first of all take care of their private
economic interests in terms of rent-seeking or blatant corruption.
5. Discursive resources consist of abilities to present specific issues in ways that
meet approval by other actors. Several of the chapters in this book show
examples of how some actors manage to get wide acceptance for certain views
even though research reveals that the claims are not supported by empirical
knowledge.
6. There is much wisdom in the proverb that ‘knowledge is power’. Production of
and access to information constitutes an important power resource, which is
often unevenly distributed between the parties in a conflict over environmental
governance. One example is information about the increased value of forests
following the use of forests for carbon sequestration as a measure to mitigate
climate change (see 7 Chap. 6). The economic value of a forest is therefore not
only based on trees as a source of timber or biodiversity, but also as a potential
site for carbon storage. Countries with huge forests, such as the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Tanzania and Brazil, have therefore received payments via
international programmes to reduce climate change through forest protection.
However, information about the increased value of forests and the actual payments will not necessarily be available to all people affected by these programmes. This may be due to practical difficulties of disseminating the
information, but government officials in the responsible ministries may also
choose to hold back on information or selectively inform forest communities.
Thus, people who live in forest areas do not necessarily receive information
about how much their area is worth, and what they need to do to take part in
the income from protecting the forest. Some of these funds may therefore benefit government officials and non-governmental organizations more than forest
communities.
7. The use of violence and coercion is a means of power that can be applied by
the state more or less in agreement with national legislation. An example is the
forced relocation of people in connection with mining or conservation. In
many countries in the Global South, there have in recent years been an
increased militarization of conservation for instance in and around national
parks (7 Chap. 4). Many incidences have been documented of people who
have been beaten up or even shot. In addition, violence is employed by other
actors that operate outside the law, such as criminal networks or resistance
movements including ‘jihadist’ groups (7 Chap. 8).
8. ‘The Weapons of the Weak’ is a form of power resource described by Scott
(1985). In examples of asymmetric power, Scott shows how people have their
methods to resist exploitation, and that such resistance can actually have a
substantial impact. This implies that people may pretend to support a project,
Chapter 1 · Political Ecology on Pandora
1
leaders are elected, the ability to get support from voters provides a type of
political power resource.
4. Influence over bureaucracies constitutes a power resource that may be used by
elected politicians. Other actors, for example companies, can also exercise great
influence on parts of the government apparatus. In some cases, government
officials exercise power in ways where they first of all take care of their private
economic interests in terms of rent-seeking or blatant corruption.
5. Discursive resources consist of abilities to present specific issues in ways that
meet approval by other actors. Several of the chapters in this book show
examples of how some actors manage to get wide acceptance for certain views
even though research reveals that the claims are not supported by empirical
knowledge.
6. There is much wisdom in the proverb that ‘knowledge is power’. Production of
and access to information constitutes an important power resource, which is
often unevenly distributed between the parties in a conflict over environmental
governance. One example is information about the increased value of forests
following the use of forests for carbon sequestration as a measure to mitigate
climate change (see 7 Chap. 6). The economic value of a forest is therefore not
only based on trees as a source of timber or biodiversity, but also as a potential
site for carbon storage. Countries with huge forests, such as the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Tanzania and Brazil, have therefore received payments via
international programmes to reduce climate change through forest protection.
However, information about the increased value of forests and the actual payments will not necessarily be available to all people affected by these programmes. This may be due to practical difficulties of disseminating the
information, but government officials in the responsible ministries may also
choose to hold back on information or selectively inform forest communities.
Thus, people who live in forest areas do not necessarily receive information
about how much their area is worth, and what they need to do to take part in
the income from protecting the forest. Some of these funds may therefore benefit government officials and non-governmental organizations more than forest
communities.
7. The use of violence and coercion is a means of power that can be applied by
the state more or less in agreement with national legislation. An example is the
forced relocation of people in connection with mining or conservation. In
many countries in the Global South, there have in recent years been an
increased militarization of conservation for instance in and around national
parks (7 Chap. 4). Many incidences have been documented of people who
have been beaten up or even shot. In addition, violence is employed by other
actors that operate outside the law, such as criminal networks or resistance
movements including ‘jihadist’ groups (7 Chap. 8).
8. ‘The Weapons of the Weak’ is a form of power resource described by Scott
(1985). In examples of asymmetric power, Scott shows how people have their
methods to resist exploitation, and that such resistance can actually have a
substantial impact. This implies that people may pretend to support a project,
Chapter 1 · Political Ecology on Pandora