17
1
modernity manage populations and get people to act as the government wishes
(Foucault 2008; Fletcher 2010) – see definition on p. 44.
A number of studies of environmental issues pointing out such mechanisms
have been carried out (Agrawal 2005; Flyvbjerg 1998; Fletcher 2010). Arun Agrawal
first introduced Foucault’s power perspective into political ecology through the
concept environmentality.
Power theories focusing on social structures may be divided into two groups.
The first is about structural characteristics that some establish or use in order to
obtain particular results. This is exercise of power conducted by intentional actors.
In the other group there are theories of social structures that in certain situations
get people to think and act in particular ways without this being an intention from
anybody. Such non-intentional effects are produced, for example, when many people go by car every day to work. Climate change and local pollution may in this
way be non-intentional effects. Neither governments nor automobile companies
nor car drivers are likely to have any wishes to contribute to climate change and
pollution. With structural changes such as restrictions on cars or improvements of
public transport, the effects could be reduced. Intentional exercise of power and
non-intentional effects are both social elements with high importance. Nevertheless,
the analyses become vague and unclear if their differences are not specified conceptually. We argue that it is important to distinguish between exercises of power on
the one hand, and other social aspects such as non-intentional effects of social
structures. With other words, these are differences between power and non-intentional operations of ‘force’.
Power Resources
In studies of environmental conflicts, we think it is useful to establish the power
resources that are available and used by different actors. We will mention nine different types, but this is not an exhaustive list. The specification of power resources
implies a focus on actors. At the same time, each of these resources is also related
to structure-oriented power perspectives.
1. Power resources might consist of economic resources, such as finance capital
(money) or ownership of businesses. Those in possession of such economic
assets often have great influence on economic developments. Private owners of
large businesses, as well as governmental and non-governmental aid organizations, possess power resources of this type.
2. Ownership, control over and use rights to land and natural resources is a variation of an economic power resource that is particularly important in environmental governance. An example is what is labelled ‘land grabbing’ or ‘green
grabbing’, where actors, being foreign or national, acquire land, while local
smallholders are squeezed out. The land is then used to produce food or biofuels, set aside for climate mitigation, or reserved for conservation and tourism
(see 7 Chaps. 4, 6 and 9).
3. Power may be exercised on the basis of political resources in the form of influence over policies, laws and public budgets. In all countries were governmental
1.6 · Sixth Synthesis: Different Types of Power
1
modernity manage populations and get people to act as the government wishes
(Foucault 2008; Fletcher 2010) – see definition on p. 44.
A number of studies of environmental issues pointing out such mechanisms
have been carried out (Agrawal 2005; Flyvbjerg 1998; Fletcher 2010). Arun Agrawal
first introduced Foucault’s power perspective into political ecology through the
concept environmentality.
Power theories focusing on social structures may be divided into two groups.
The first is about structural characteristics that some establish or use in order to
obtain particular results. This is exercise of power conducted by intentional actors.
In the other group there are theories of social structures that in certain situations
get people to think and act in particular ways without this being an intention from
anybody. Such non-intentional effects are produced, for example, when many people go by car every day to work. Climate change and local pollution may in this
way be non-intentional effects. Neither governments nor automobile companies
nor car drivers are likely to have any wishes to contribute to climate change and
pollution. With structural changes such as restrictions on cars or improvements of
public transport, the effects could be reduced. Intentional exercise of power and
non-intentional effects are both social elements with high importance. Nevertheless,
the analyses become vague and unclear if their differences are not specified conceptually. We argue that it is important to distinguish between exercises of power on
the one hand, and other social aspects such as non-intentional effects of social
structures. With other words, these are differences between power and non-intentional operations of ‘force’.
Power Resources
In studies of environmental conflicts, we think it is useful to establish the power
resources that are available and used by different actors. We will mention nine different types, but this is not an exhaustive list. The specification of power resources
implies a focus on actors. At the same time, each of these resources is also related
to structure-oriented power perspectives.
1. Power resources might consist of economic resources, such as finance capital
(money) or ownership of businesses. Those in possession of such economic
assets often have great influence on economic developments. Private owners of
large businesses, as well as governmental and non-governmental aid organizations, possess power resources of this type.
2. Ownership, control over and use rights to land and natural resources is a variation of an economic power resource that is particularly important in environmental governance. An example is what is labelled ‘land grabbing’ or ‘green
grabbing’, where actors, being foreign or national, acquire land, while local
smallholders are squeezed out. The land is then used to produce food or biofuels, set aside for climate mitigation, or reserved for conservation and tourism
(see 7 Chaps. 4, 6 and 9).
3. Power may be exercised on the basis of political resources in the form of influence over policies, laws and public budgets. In all countries were governmental
1.6 · Sixth Synthesis: Different Types of Power