12
1
explanation of why some countries are rich and others are poor. André Gunder
Frank, Samir Amin, Immanuel Wallerstein and others have shown that development in Western industrialized countries (centre) and former colonies (periphery)
are bound together in relationships where raw materials and resources are transferred from the periphery to the centre, and where these centre-periphery connections form the basis for industrial production and economic development.
Moreover, there is a social structure with alliances between the elites in the periphery and the centre. According to dependency theory, these aspects of the world
system have contributed to development in the centre and underdevelopment in the
periphery (Frank 1979; Amin 1977).
More recently, globalization opponents follow in the wake of such a structureoriented tradition, where they for instance point out negative consequences for
countries in the Global South of economic structures at the global level. On environmental issues, political ecologists study how structures of various kinds at the
global level can impact on local environments and their use. This may involve economic structures as well as discourses among powerful actors.
Norman Long is one of the best-known contributors to an actor-oriented
approach in development studies. He believes that structure-oriented development
theories often are too deterministic in that they view social change as only brought
about by external influences (Long 1992, 2001). Even where the structural framework is relatively constant, Long believes that actors have more options than what
is often assumed. Yet, he does not rule out the importance of social structures.
Most environment and development scholars - as well as other social scientists today realize the necessity of combining structural and actor-oriented explanations in one way or another in their analyses. Nevertheless, there is wide variation
in how different scholars place their emphasis, so that some, like Long, are mainly
actor-oriented, while others are mainly structure-oriented.
Several social scientists have during recent years established different theoretical
syntheses involving a due consideration of both actors and structures. For example,
the sociologist, Anthony Giddens, has developed what he calls structuration theory.
As actors, Giddens focuses on individuals, and social structures encompass rules
and resources that the actors may use. Giddens emphasizes that social structures not
only restrict actions, but also make actions possible. Actors utilize structures when
they act. Furthermore, actions have effects back on the underlying structures, which
subsequently change over time. In other words, structure has a duality of creating a
basis for action and being the results of action (Giddens 1984; Stones 2005).
In Avatar, we can distinguish between
different actor groups, such as the Na’vi,
the mining company, the military force
and the research unit. We can also see
how different individuals attempt to act
in accordance with what they regard as
their own interests. Jake Sully’s legs are
paralyzed. The Colonel gives him the
promise that if he does his job in the way
the Colonel wishes, Jake can return home
to Earth and have an operation paid, and
this will make him able to walk again.
Actors on Pandora
Chapter 1 · Political Ecology on Pandora
1
explanation of why some countries are rich and others are poor. André Gunder
Frank, Samir Amin, Immanuel Wallerstein and others have shown that development in Western industrialized countries (centre) and former colonies (periphery)
are bound together in relationships where raw materials and resources are transferred from the periphery to the centre, and where these centre-periphery connections form the basis for industrial production and economic development.
Moreover, there is a social structure with alliances between the elites in the periphery and the centre. According to dependency theory, these aspects of the world
system have contributed to development in the centre and underdevelopment in the
periphery (Frank 1979; Amin 1977).
More recently, globalization opponents follow in the wake of such a structureoriented tradition, where they for instance point out negative consequences for
countries in the Global South of economic structures at the global level. On environmental issues, political ecologists study how structures of various kinds at the
global level can impact on local environments and their use. This may involve economic structures as well as discourses among powerful actors.
Norman Long is one of the best-known contributors to an actor-oriented
approach in development studies. He believes that structure-oriented development
theories often are too deterministic in that they view social change as only brought
about by external influences (Long 1992, 2001). Even where the structural framework is relatively constant, Long believes that actors have more options than what
is often assumed. Yet, he does not rule out the importance of social structures.
Most environment and development scholars - as well as other social scientists today realize the necessity of combining structural and actor-oriented explanations in one way or another in their analyses. Nevertheless, there is wide variation
in how different scholars place their emphasis, so that some, like Long, are mainly
actor-oriented, while others are mainly structure-oriented.
Several social scientists have during recent years established different theoretical
syntheses involving a due consideration of both actors and structures. For example,
the sociologist, Anthony Giddens, has developed what he calls structuration theory.
As actors, Giddens focuses on individuals, and social structures encompass rules
and resources that the actors may use. Giddens emphasizes that social structures not
only restrict actions, but also make actions possible. Actors utilize structures when
they act. Furthermore, actions have effects back on the underlying structures, which
subsequently change over time. In other words, structure has a duality of creating a
basis for action and being the results of action (Giddens 1984; Stones 2005).
In Avatar, we can distinguish between
different actor groups, such as the Na’vi,
the mining company, the military force
and the research unit. We can also see
how different individuals attempt to act
in accordance with what they regard as
their own interests. Jake Sully’s legs are
paralyzed. The Colonel gives him the
promise that if he does his job in the way
the Colonel wishes, Jake can return home
to Earth and have an operation paid, and
this will make him able to walk again.
Actors on Pandora
Chapter 1 · Political Ecology on Pandora