11
1
Another normative focus in political ecology is to look at the degree of
participation and influence among local actors where external actors wish to implement changes. Students who examine participation can for example take as a starting point a scale of participation with a number of different levels ranging from
‘manipulative participation’ to ‘self-mobilization’ (Pretty 1995). At the beginning
of the Avatar movie, it appears that the mining company wishes to reach a negotiated resolution with the Na’vi. This does not mean that the company is willing to
abandon its primary goal of extracting the mineral ‘unobtanium’ using methods
that will destroy Pandora’s land. Instead, it is rather an attempt at ‘manipulative
participation’ (see more about participation in 7 Chaps. 3, 4 and 5).
Within environmental research, one often encounters attitudes that research
should be ‘neutral’ or ‘objective’. However, closer investigation can reveal how specific norms and values are embedded, and, for example, implies that preservation of
nature is prioritized, while considerations for people’s livelihoods are neglected
(Svarstad et al. 2008). Political ecology here builds on the critique of positivism
within social sciences and philosophy. Natural as well as social scientists may present their own work as ‘neutral’ or ‘objective’, although critical examinations reveal
that they are based on specific norms and values with considerable impact on the
research conclusions. It is also problematic when this type of assumed ‘neutral’
research forms the basis for decision-making on environmental governance.
Environmental sustainability, justice and human rights are amongst the norms
often subscribed to in political ecology. These norms are broadly shared and are
not very controversial, at least not on paper. Nevertheless, they may be taken more
seriously in political ecology than in some other scholarly traditions.
1.4 Fourth Synthesis: Agency and Structure
Environmental governance can be seen as a direct result of agency—in other words
what actors do. Social structures limit as well as facilitate such actions. When investigating causes of an environmental problem in a specific case, it is useful to try and
identify the actors as well as the social structures involved in shaping a particular
way of thinking about the environment and how the problems are addressed in practice. Actors and social structures are key concepts in the social sciences in general.
Actors may be individuals or large entities such as organizations, businesses or
governmental bureaucracies. They may have really clear or rather hazy goals and
values.
There are different ways of conceptualizing social structures. In this book, we
use the term about elements that enable or restrict the agency of actors. Social
structures include social norms. These are formal or informal rules of behaviour.
Furthermore, social structures also entail institutions, which are formalized frameworks for action, such as laws and policies. Discourses constitute yet another type
of social structures, and we define them as shared ways of understanding and presenting a particular issue (see 7 Chap. 3).
Last but not least, there are also economic structures. Within development
studies, the dependency school represents a structure-oriented perspective in its
1.4 · Fourth Synthesis: Agency and Structure
1
Another normative focus in political ecology is to look at the degree of
participation and influence among local actors where external actors wish to implement changes. Students who examine participation can for example take as a starting point a scale of participation with a number of different levels ranging from
‘manipulative participation’ to ‘self-mobilization’ (Pretty 1995). At the beginning
of the Avatar movie, it appears that the mining company wishes to reach a negotiated resolution with the Na’vi. This does not mean that the company is willing to
abandon its primary goal of extracting the mineral ‘unobtanium’ using methods
that will destroy Pandora’s land. Instead, it is rather an attempt at ‘manipulative
participation’ (see more about participation in 7 Chaps. 3, 4 and 5).
Within environmental research, one often encounters attitudes that research
should be ‘neutral’ or ‘objective’. However, closer investigation can reveal how specific norms and values are embedded, and, for example, implies that preservation of
nature is prioritized, while considerations for people’s livelihoods are neglected
(Svarstad et al. 2008). Political ecology here builds on the critique of positivism
within social sciences and philosophy. Natural as well as social scientists may present their own work as ‘neutral’ or ‘objective’, although critical examinations reveal
that they are based on specific norms and values with considerable impact on the
research conclusions. It is also problematic when this type of assumed ‘neutral’
research forms the basis for decision-making on environmental governance.
Environmental sustainability, justice and human rights are amongst the norms
often subscribed to in political ecology. These norms are broadly shared and are
not very controversial, at least not on paper. Nevertheless, they may be taken more
seriously in political ecology than in some other scholarly traditions.
1.4 Fourth Synthesis: Agency and Structure
Environmental governance can be seen as a direct result of agency—in other words
what actors do. Social structures limit as well as facilitate such actions. When investigating causes of an environmental problem in a specific case, it is useful to try and
identify the actors as well as the social structures involved in shaping a particular
way of thinking about the environment and how the problems are addressed in practice. Actors and social structures are key concepts in the social sciences in general.
Actors may be individuals or large entities such as organizations, businesses or
governmental bureaucracies. They may have really clear or rather hazy goals and
values.
There are different ways of conceptualizing social structures. In this book, we
use the term about elements that enable or restrict the agency of actors. Social
structures include social norms. These are formal or informal rules of behaviour.
Furthermore, social structures also entail institutions, which are formalized frameworks for action, such as laws and policies. Discourses constitute yet another type
of social structures, and we define them as shared ways of understanding and presenting a particular issue (see 7 Chap. 3).
Last but not least, there are also economic structures. Within development
studies, the dependency school represents a structure-oriented perspective in its
1.4 · Fourth Synthesis: Agency and Structure