227
9
Conclusions
In this chapter, we have argued that a certain population density is necessary for increased agricultural production in Africa. Since investment capital is often lacking in
African agriculture, it is mostly people’s labour that drives agricultural development.
But access to markets is also necessary to create a surplus that can be sold. The case
of cotton production in Mali illustrates the potential role of the market as a motor
for agricultural development. This, however, requires that smallholders are able to
control parts of the commodity chain. In the cotton zone in Mali, farmers hold some
power through their union that negotiates a farm-gate price with the parastatal cotton company every year before the agricultural season. If farmers are not satisfied
with the price, they will grow more maize and millet, and less cotton. This case also
demonstrates that small-scale farming, even when closely linked to a market, does
not necessarily lead to loss of soil fertility.
But as the two cases with large-scale land investments in Tanzania show, ‘modernisation’ through big capital investments in African land-use may also have detrimental effects on sustainability and local livelihoods. There are several problematic
aspects with GR’s forest plantations such as lack of transparency in the company’s
social responsibilities, the creation of monocultures of pine or eucalyptus with adverse impacts on biodiversity, and low and delayed salary payments. These impacts
remain, however, invisible to buyers of carbon credits leading to this being another
case of commodity fetishism. GR has, however, also created a number of local jobs,
which should be acknowledged, even if they are poorly paid.
KPL is, however, a clear example of accumulation by dispossession through the
establishment of one of East Africa’s biggest farms, with British and Norwegian
owners, leading to the eviction of 381 families without fair compensation. At least
the dispossession part is clear, but the business has struggled economically with losses to the investors and a failed capital accumulation in this case.
Both the GR and KPL investments can also be seen as cases of ‘spatial fix’,
which describes a situation where capital’s falling profit rates in any sector, domain
or geographical location lead to the migration of capital to non-capitalist spaces
and geographical expansion often resulting in processes of accumulation by dispossession.
There is a fair amount of research demonstrating how small-scale farming may
be more sustainable than mechanized large-scale farming, and that it can also provide livelihoods for many more people on the same piece of land. Small-scale farmers
in Africa are, however, generally fighting an uphill battle against dominating beliefs
among governments and development agencies that they should change their ‘peasant mentality’ and become modern farmers. Large-scale agriculture that these actors
tend to promote will necessarily lead to increased landlessness and growth of urban
slums. Even if total agricultural production goes up, the food produced will not be
available to the ones who in the process lose access to land to feed their families.
9.1 · Population Growth and Agricultural Development in Africa
9
Conclusions
In this chapter, we have argued that a certain population density is necessary for increased agricultural production in Africa. Since investment capital is often lacking in
African agriculture, it is mostly people’s labour that drives agricultural development.
But access to markets is also necessary to create a surplus that can be sold. The case
of cotton production in Mali illustrates the potential role of the market as a motor
for agricultural development. This, however, requires that smallholders are able to
control parts of the commodity chain. In the cotton zone in Mali, farmers hold some
power through their union that negotiates a farm-gate price with the parastatal cotton company every year before the agricultural season. If farmers are not satisfied
with the price, they will grow more maize and millet, and less cotton. This case also
demonstrates that small-scale farming, even when closely linked to a market, does
not necessarily lead to loss of soil fertility.
But as the two cases with large-scale land investments in Tanzania show, ‘modernisation’ through big capital investments in African land-use may also have detrimental effects on sustainability and local livelihoods. There are several problematic
aspects with GR’s forest plantations such as lack of transparency in the company’s
social responsibilities, the creation of monocultures of pine or eucalyptus with adverse impacts on biodiversity, and low and delayed salary payments. These impacts
remain, however, invisible to buyers of carbon credits leading to this being another
case of commodity fetishism. GR has, however, also created a number of local jobs,
which should be acknowledged, even if they are poorly paid.
KPL is, however, a clear example of accumulation by dispossession through the
establishment of one of East Africa’s biggest farms, with British and Norwegian
owners, leading to the eviction of 381 families without fair compensation. At least
the dispossession part is clear, but the business has struggled economically with losses to the investors and a failed capital accumulation in this case.
Both the GR and KPL investments can also be seen as cases of ‘spatial fix’,
which describes a situation where capital’s falling profit rates in any sector, domain
or geographical location lead to the migration of capital to non-capitalist spaces
and geographical expansion often resulting in processes of accumulation by dispossession.
There is a fair amount of research demonstrating how small-scale farming may
be more sustainable than mechanized large-scale farming, and that it can also provide livelihoods for many more people on the same piece of land. Small-scale farmers
in Africa are, however, generally fighting an uphill battle against dominating beliefs
among governments and development agencies that they should change their ‘peasant mentality’ and become modern farmers. Large-scale agriculture that these actors
tend to promote will necessarily lead to increased landlessness and growth of urban
slums. Even if total agricultural production goes up, the food produced will not be
available to the ones who in the process lose access to land to feed their families.
9.1 · Population Growth and Agricultural Development in Africa