List of Figures
Fig. 1.1
The three aspects of environmental governance (use, conservation,
distribution) are produced through agency (acts by actors). Social
structures limit and facilitate these actions. Normative analyses can be
undertaken by defining specific goals (such as sustainable environmental
governance) and by empirically examining the extent to which they are
fulfilled in specific cases. (Source: Created by the authors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 2.1
The main elements in a chain of explanations. (Source: Created
by the authors and inspired by Blaikie and Brookfield (1987)) . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 2.2
A web of relations to explain elephant killings in a case in Tanzania.
(Source: Adapted from Mariki et al. 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 3.1
At several international conferences about bioprospecting,
the Coalition Against Biopiracy has arranged ceremonies where
‘winners’ are announced of Captain Hook Awards for Biopiracy.
This poster is from the Conference of the Parties to the Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Cacun, Mexico, in 2016, and it indicates
that the winners cannot necessarily expect honour (SynBioWatch 2016) . . . 68
Fig. 4.1
Namaqua National Park. (Source: Created by the authors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 4.2
Map of Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve.
(Source: Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology & the Environment
(ATREE), Bangalore) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 6.1
Annual total CO 2 emissions by world region, 1751–2018.
(Source: Our World in Data/Carbon Dioxide Information
Analysis Center (CDIAC); Global Carbon Project (GCP)).
7 OurWorldInData. org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions . . . . . . . 131
Fig. 6.2
Map of the area of the REDD project in Kondoa, Tanzania.
(Source: Created by the authors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fig. 7.1
Jovsset Ánte Sara’s sister, Máret Ánne Sara, is an artist.
This is how she depicts destocking forced upon Sámi reindeer
herders by Norwegian authorities. The process, which curiously is
framed as part of a policy of ‘self-determination’, also creates
competition among herders. (Source: Máret Ánne Sara) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig. 7.2
Summer and winter pastures in Finnmark, Northern Norway.
(Source: Benjaminsen et al. 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Fig. 7.3
Overgrazing on the winter pastures in Finnmark according to
the Auditor General. The map is based on time series from
Johansen and Karlsen (2005). Red = overgrazed, orange =
moderately grazed; white = intact. (Source: Riksrevisjonen 2012) . . . . . . . . 172
Fig. 7.4
Reindeer numbers in Western Finnmark, 1980–2017.
(Source: Marin et al. 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Fig. 7.5
Pastoral productivity in the Sámi reindeer herding areas
Røros and West Finnmark measured per animal (bars) and
per km 2 (graph). (Source: Norwegian Agriculture Agency
and Johnsen and Benjaminsen (2017)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fig. 1.1
The three aspects of environmental governance (use, conservation,
distribution) are produced through agency (acts by actors). Social
structures limit and facilitate these actions. Normative analyses can be
undertaken by defining specific goals (such as sustainable environmental
governance) and by empirically examining the extent to which they are
fulfilled in specific cases. (Source: Created by the authors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 2.1
The main elements in a chain of explanations. (Source: Created
by the authors and inspired by Blaikie and Brookfield (1987)) . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 2.2
A web of relations to explain elephant killings in a case in Tanzania.
(Source: Adapted from Mariki et al. 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 3.1
At several international conferences about bioprospecting,
the Coalition Against Biopiracy has arranged ceremonies where
‘winners’ are announced of Captain Hook Awards for Biopiracy.
This poster is from the Conference of the Parties to the Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Cacun, Mexico, in 2016, and it indicates
that the winners cannot necessarily expect honour (SynBioWatch 2016) . . . 68
Fig. 4.1
Namaqua National Park. (Source: Created by the authors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 4.2
Map of Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve.
(Source: Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology & the Environment
(ATREE), Bangalore) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 6.1
Annual total CO 2 emissions by world region, 1751–2018.
(Source: Our World in Data/Carbon Dioxide Information
Analysis Center (CDIAC); Global Carbon Project (GCP)).
7 OurWorldInData. org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions . . . . . . . 131
Fig. 6.2
Map of the area of the REDD project in Kondoa, Tanzania.
(Source: Created by the authors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fig. 7.1
Jovsset Ánte Sara’s sister, Máret Ánne Sara, is an artist.
This is how she depicts destocking forced upon Sámi reindeer
herders by Norwegian authorities. The process, which curiously is
framed as part of a policy of ‘self-determination’, also creates
competition among herders. (Source: Máret Ánne Sara) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig. 7.2
Summer and winter pastures in Finnmark, Northern Norway.
(Source: Benjaminsen et al. 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Fig. 7.3
Overgrazing on the winter pastures in Finnmark according to
the Auditor General. The map is based on time series from
Johansen and Karlsen (2005). Red = overgrazed, orange =
moderately grazed; white = intact. (Source: Riksrevisjonen 2012) . . . . . . . . 172
Fig. 7.4
Reindeer numbers in Western Finnmark, 1980–2017.
(Source: Marin et al. 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Fig. 7.5
Pastoral productivity in the Sámi reindeer herding areas
Røros and West Finnmark measured per animal (bars) and
per km 2 (graph). (Source: Norwegian Agriculture Agency
and Johnsen and Benjaminsen (2017)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177