104
4
From the mid-1970s, hunting was banned in the area. This ban resulted in an
increase in wildlife numbers as it has in other parts of India. Herbivores such as
sambar (Rus unicolor), chital (Axis axis) and wild boar (Sus scrofa), which were previously hunted for meat, experienced a steady growth in numbers as a result of the
decreased hunting. Following this protection and the increase in herbivores, the tiger
population in BRT also increased: it is estimated that there were 25 tigers in 2010 and
68 in 2014.
Over time, Adivasi have also experienced increased crop losses caused in particular by the increasing wild boar population. In addition, Adivasi suggest that
increased raiding of crops is also caused by the fact that forage has decreased within
the sanctuary, due to the increase in density of Lantana camara, an ornamental plant
turned weed that was introduced to India by the British in the early nineteenth century. Ecological studies have shown that Lantana growth has increased tremendously
over the last few decades. There was a three-fold increase in density of Lantana in
BRT between 1997 and 2007, and a doubling in the geographic spread within the
tiger reserve during this period (Sundaram and Hiremath 2011).
Households that could switch to growing coffee from millet did so to avoid losing
crops to wild boars. Farmers switched to coffee as it is not eaten by wild boars and
hence considered a safe crop to cultivate. Coffee only grows in wet areas and is not
therefore an option for all villages. Moreover, as it takes a few years to produce a
yield, only households that have the ability to forego income from agriculture for a
few years could afford to switch to coffee.
Adivasi claim that the ban on the use of fire has transformed the once open forest
into dense vegetation. Fire kept the undergrowth open and facilitated movement, use
and visibility. Lantana densities and cover have increased significantly enough to
affect the vegetation dynamics of many tree species due to suppressing growth and
recruitment (Ticktin et al. 2012). Adivasi have listed over a hundred species of plants
and trees that they say have declined over the past 40 years. This decrease in the
population of many plant species as well as the decreased visibility in the forest has
resulted in Adivasi not harvesting a range of forest produce. Hence, the combined
impact of restrictions, vegetation transformation and wildlife increase has considerably reduced forest-based livelihood opportunities.
Adivasi give an account of forest change that is being confirmed by ecological
studies. They describe the impacts of fire suppression as not only increasing Lantana
densities, but also that of a mistletoe (Taxillus tomentosus) that infects adult trees
leading to their early death. The mistletoe is susceptible to the smoke from ground
fires and the absence of these fires has resulted in an increase in its density. In corroboration of what the Adivasi have been describing, long-term ecological studies
have shown that Lantana has increased significantly (Sundaram and Hiremath
2011); that mistletoe-induced mortality of trees is high (Rist et al. 2008); and that the
combined effect of the increase in Lantana growth and mistletoe infection has
resulted in the population decline of major trees used for non-timber forest products
(NTFP) (Ticktin et al. 2012).
The average annual household income derived from NTFP decreased from 104
US dollars in 1995 to 19 US dollars in 2009 (when corrected for consumer price
Chapter 4 · Conservation Discourses Versus Practices
4
From the mid-1970s, hunting was banned in the area. This ban resulted in an
increase in wildlife numbers as it has in other parts of India. Herbivores such as
sambar (Rus unicolor), chital (Axis axis) and wild boar (Sus scrofa), which were previously hunted for meat, experienced a steady growth in numbers as a result of the
decreased hunting. Following this protection and the increase in herbivores, the tiger
population in BRT also increased: it is estimated that there were 25 tigers in 2010 and
68 in 2014.
Over time, Adivasi have also experienced increased crop losses caused in particular by the increasing wild boar population. In addition, Adivasi suggest that
increased raiding of crops is also caused by the fact that forage has decreased within
the sanctuary, due to the increase in density of Lantana camara, an ornamental plant
turned weed that was introduced to India by the British in the early nineteenth century. Ecological studies have shown that Lantana growth has increased tremendously
over the last few decades. There was a three-fold increase in density of Lantana in
BRT between 1997 and 2007, and a doubling in the geographic spread within the
tiger reserve during this period (Sundaram and Hiremath 2011).
Households that could switch to growing coffee from millet did so to avoid losing
crops to wild boars. Farmers switched to coffee as it is not eaten by wild boars and
hence considered a safe crop to cultivate. Coffee only grows in wet areas and is not
therefore an option for all villages. Moreover, as it takes a few years to produce a
yield, only households that have the ability to forego income from agriculture for a
few years could afford to switch to coffee.
Adivasi claim that the ban on the use of fire has transformed the once open forest
into dense vegetation. Fire kept the undergrowth open and facilitated movement, use
and visibility. Lantana densities and cover have increased significantly enough to
affect the vegetation dynamics of many tree species due to suppressing growth and
recruitment (Ticktin et al. 2012). Adivasi have listed over a hundred species of plants
and trees that they say have declined over the past 40 years. This decrease in the
population of many plant species as well as the decreased visibility in the forest has
resulted in Adivasi not harvesting a range of forest produce. Hence, the combined
impact of restrictions, vegetation transformation and wildlife increase has considerably reduced forest-based livelihood opportunities.
Adivasi give an account of forest change that is being confirmed by ecological
studies. They describe the impacts of fire suppression as not only increasing Lantana
densities, but also that of a mistletoe (Taxillus tomentosus) that infects adult trees
leading to their early death. The mistletoe is susceptible to the smoke from ground
fires and the absence of these fires has resulted in an increase in its density. In corroboration of what the Adivasi have been describing, long-term ecological studies
have shown that Lantana has increased significantly (Sundaram and Hiremath
2011); that mistletoe-induced mortality of trees is high (Rist et al. 2008); and that the
combined effect of the increase in Lantana growth and mistletoe infection has
resulted in the population decline of major trees used for non-timber forest products
(NTFP) (Ticktin et al. 2012).
The average annual household income derived from NTFP decreased from 104
US dollars in 1995 to 19 US dollars in 2009 (when corrected for consumer price
Chapter 4 · Conservation Discourses Versus Practices