34
2.10 Links Between Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Humans benefit from ecosystem functions and biodiversity. The benefits we derive
from nature, often called ecosystem services, are a product of the biodiversity—
assembled over millions of years—and ecosystem properties of a given region, or
the whole Earth (Daily 1997). Daily (1997) defines ecosystem services as “the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that make
them up, sustain and fulfill human life.” Ecosystem services, referred to by the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES) as “nature’s contributions to people” (Díaz et al. 2018), are a
socioecological concept that emerged from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
(2005) and include provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. Some
ecosystem service categories include direct benefits of biodiversity—through the
use and spiritual values that humans establish with elements of biodiversity and
ecosystems—and indirect benefits through the contributions of biodiversity to critical regulating ecosystem functions. The diversities of functional traits of plants
make up the primary productivity of life on Earth and are essential to the ecosystem
services on which all life depends. Assessment of ecosystem services depends on
understanding both the ecosystem functions on which ecosystem services are
derived and how services are valued by humans (Schrodt et al., Chap. 17). Modeling
efforts that incorporate remotely sensed data can be used to describe ecosystem
functions and quantify the services they generate (Sharp et al. 2018). (For modeling
tools that enable mapping and valuing ecosystem services, see https://naturalcapitalproject.stanford.edu/invest/.)
2.11 Trade-Offs Between Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services
Biodiversity—as well as many regulating services to which biodiversity contributes
and upon which it depends—frequently shows a negative trade-off with provisioning ecosystem services, such as agricultural production (Haines-Young and Potschin
2009). The nature of these trade-offs depends on the biophysical context, including
the climate, soils, hydrology, and geology, and will differ among regions. A tradeoff curve represents the limits set by these biophysical constraints and can be
thought of in economic terms as an “efficiency frontier” that sets the boundaries on
possible combinations of biodiversity (or regulating services) and provisioning
services (Polasky et al. 2008). Combinations above the curve are not possible; outcomes beneath the curve provide fewer total benefits than what is actually possible
from the environment. Quantifying the biodiversity and ecosystem service potential
from land and how they trade off are critical to efficient management of ecosystems. Current RS tools and forthcoming technologies are well-poised to decrease
uncertainty in estimates of biodiversity—ecosystem service trade-offs—and can
J. Cavender-Bares et al.
2.10 Links Between Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Humans benefit from ecosystem functions and biodiversity. The benefits we derive
from nature, often called ecosystem services, are a product of the biodiversity—
assembled over millions of years—and ecosystem properties of a given region, or
the whole Earth (Daily 1997). Daily (1997) defines ecosystem services as “the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that make
them up, sustain and fulfill human life.” Ecosystem services, referred to by the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES) as “nature’s contributions to people” (Díaz et al. 2018), are a
socioecological concept that emerged from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
(2005) and include provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. Some
ecosystem service categories include direct benefits of biodiversity—through the
use and spiritual values that humans establish with elements of biodiversity and
ecosystems—and indirect benefits through the contributions of biodiversity to critical regulating ecosystem functions. The diversities of functional traits of plants
make up the primary productivity of life on Earth and are essential to the ecosystem
services on which all life depends. Assessment of ecosystem services depends on
understanding both the ecosystem functions on which ecosystem services are
derived and how services are valued by humans (Schrodt et al., Chap. 17). Modeling
efforts that incorporate remotely sensed data can be used to describe ecosystem
functions and quantify the services they generate (Sharp et al. 2018). (For modeling
tools that enable mapping and valuing ecosystem services, see https://naturalcapitalproject.stanford.edu/invest/.)
2.11 Trade-Offs Between Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services
Biodiversity—as well as many regulating services to which biodiversity contributes
and upon which it depends—frequently shows a negative trade-off with provisioning ecosystem services, such as agricultural production (Haines-Young and Potschin
2009). The nature of these trade-offs depends on the biophysical context, including
the climate, soils, hydrology, and geology, and will differ among regions. A tradeoff curve represents the limits set by these biophysical constraints and can be
thought of in economic terms as an “efficiency frontier” that sets the boundaries on
possible combinations of biodiversity (or regulating services) and provisioning
services (Polasky et al. 2008). Combinations above the curve are not possible; outcomes beneath the curve provide fewer total benefits than what is actually possible
from the environment. Quantifying the biodiversity and ecosystem service potential
from land and how they trade off are critical to efficient management of ecosystems. Current RS tools and forthcoming technologies are well-poised to decrease
uncertainty in estimates of biodiversity—ecosystem service trade-offs—and can
J. Cavender-Bares et al.