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10.5.1 Challenges and Opportunities
10.5.1.1 The Interplay Between Biodiversity and Geodiversity over Time
Although we have focused thus far on the effects of geodiversity on biodiversity,
biodiversity can also affect geodiversity. Ecosystem engineers (Jones et al. 1994)
and foundation species (Record et al. 2018) can influence biodiversity through habitat formation (Hastings et al. 2007). Geodiversity can be modified by species
impacting the structure and function of landscape features. For example, elephants
dig, form trails, and trample (Haynes 2012), and vegetation and sediment interact to
form streams and coastal dunes (Zarnetske et al. 2012; Atkinson et al. 2017). In
turn, these species-modified features can feed back to mediate the strength and
direction of biotic interactions among species and ultimately influence patterns of
biodiversity (Zarnetske et al. 2017). Even climate can be influenced by biodiversity
and biogeographic patterns. Forests directly affect Earth’s climate through atmospheric exchange (Bonan 2008). If shrubs expand by 20% and continue to dominate
in areas north of 60°N latitude, for example, Arctic annual temperature could
increase by 0.66°C– 1.84°C, via decreased albedo and increased evapotranspiration
(Bonfills et al. 2012).
Many of these feedbacks between biodiversity and geodiversity are not detectable given a single snapshot in time and require longer time series. RS with repeat
samples taken as satellites orbit the Earth provide data with high spatial and deep
temporal coverage that can be used to assess changes in the dominance of a species
within a community (Pau and Dee 2016). Changes in the dominance structure of
communities (or its counterpart, evenness) should be early indicators of global
change because these changes occur before the complete loss or replacement of species (Hillebrand et al. 2008). Furthermore, tracking dominant species should be
especially important for quantifying biomass or abundance-driven ecosystem functions and services (Pau and Dee 2016). For instance, Cavanaugh et al. (2013) used
28 years of Landsat imagery to map the poleward expansion of mangroves, which
are important in preventing coastal erosion, in the eastern United States. Furthermore,
the 45-year time series of Landsat data provide an excellent opportunity for detecting changes in habitat due to species, which may have extreme impacts on the abiotic stage.
10.5.1.2 Scale and Expertise Mismatches
The relationships between geodiversity and biodiversity are likely to change across
spatial and temporal scales. For instance, a focused spotlight shining down on one
part of the stage (e.g., the tip of a mountaintop) might exhibit different covariation
between geodiversity and biodiversity than a broad swath of light on another portion
of the stage (e.g., an expansive low-lying valley). Spatial patterns of biodiversity
and geodiversity are each scale dependent (Rahbek 2005; Bailey et al. 2017;
Cavender-Bares et al., Chap. 2; Gamon et al., Chap. 16), and it is well established
S. Record et al.
10.5.1 Challenges and Opportunities
10.5.1.1 The Interplay Between Biodiversity and Geodiversity over Time
Although we have focused thus far on the effects of geodiversity on biodiversity,
biodiversity can also affect geodiversity. Ecosystem engineers (Jones et al. 1994)
and foundation species (Record et al. 2018) can influence biodiversity through habitat formation (Hastings et al. 2007). Geodiversity can be modified by species
impacting the structure and function of landscape features. For example, elephants
dig, form trails, and trample (Haynes 2012), and vegetation and sediment interact to
form streams and coastal dunes (Zarnetske et al. 2012; Atkinson et al. 2017). In
turn, these species-modified features can feed back to mediate the strength and
direction of biotic interactions among species and ultimately influence patterns of
biodiversity (Zarnetske et al. 2017). Even climate can be influenced by biodiversity
and biogeographic patterns. Forests directly affect Earth’s climate through atmospheric exchange (Bonan 2008). If shrubs expand by 20% and continue to dominate
in areas north of 60°N latitude, for example, Arctic annual temperature could
increase by 0.66°C– 1.84°C, via decreased albedo and increased evapotranspiration
(Bonfills et al. 2012).
Many of these feedbacks between biodiversity and geodiversity are not detectable given a single snapshot in time and require longer time series. RS with repeat
samples taken as satellites orbit the Earth provide data with high spatial and deep
temporal coverage that can be used to assess changes in the dominance of a species
within a community (Pau and Dee 2016). Changes in the dominance structure of
communities (or its counterpart, evenness) should be early indicators of global
change because these changes occur before the complete loss or replacement of species (Hillebrand et al. 2008). Furthermore, tracking dominant species should be
especially important for quantifying biomass or abundance-driven ecosystem functions and services (Pau and Dee 2016). For instance, Cavanaugh et al. (2013) used
28 years of Landsat imagery to map the poleward expansion of mangroves, which
are important in preventing coastal erosion, in the eastern United States. Furthermore,
the 45-year time series of Landsat data provide an excellent opportunity for detecting changes in habitat due to species, which may have extreme impacts on the abiotic stage.
10.5.1.2 Scale and Expertise Mismatches
The relationships between geodiversity and biodiversity are likely to change across
spatial and temporal scales. For instance, a focused spotlight shining down on one
part of the stage (e.g., the tip of a mountaintop) might exhibit different covariation
between geodiversity and biodiversity than a broad swath of light on another portion
of the stage (e.g., an expansive low-lying valley). Spatial patterns of biodiversity
and geodiversity are each scale dependent (Rahbek 2005; Bailey et al. 2017;
Cavender-Bares et al., Chap. 2; Gamon et al., Chap. 16), and it is well established
S. Record et al.