233
only once. In geologically and tectonically active areas and areas where humans are
influencing geology, satellite-derived data can be used to detect even very small
changes over time. For example, Ge et al. (2014) used synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) interferometry to detect subsidence in the Bandung Basin (Indonesia) likely
due to groundwater extraction. Yun et al. (2015) used SAR data to map areas of
change and potential damage after the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in central Nepal.
Using SAR instruments in concert with LiDAR instruments on airborne flights has
allowed for greater than 30 cm vertical accuracy (Corbley 2010). The launch of the
Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) mission onboard the International
Space Station has the potential to allow for improved global topographic data
(Stavros et al. 2017).
10.3.1.2 Lithosphere: Geology and Soils
Geology consists of several subdisciplines, including lithology, tectonics, volcanology, and seismology. A modern geologic “map” in a geographic information system
(GIS) framework may include polygons outlining the different substrate types and
their ages, lines showing faults, and points identifying small outcrops or places
where cores were collected. These static (unchanging through time) representations
are developed through the painstaking work of geologists who gather in-situ records
of rock type and estimates of geologic feature extents. Geologic maps vary in quality and access due largely to the density and biases of field technicians. When considering long-term evolutionary histories that generate deeper phylogenetic patterns,
geological processes of uplift and erosion can become important (Cowling et al.
2009). Nevertheless, for more historically proximate species, community assembly,
the available minerals, substrate structure, and topography are likely to play a more
important role, especially in plants. For example, although all locations across the
Mauna Loa environmental matrix in Hawai’i share a common parent material,
differences in age, texture, and nutrient availability (due to variation in climate and
weathering) lead to dramatically different vegetation patterns (Vitousek et al. 1992).
Similar to geologic maps, soil maps are typically developed through fieldwork
and image interpretation for a single time period. Nevertheless, soils have higher
spatial variability than bedrock and may change rapidly in response to natural or
man-made disturbance. Recently there have been calls to improve the quality and
dynamism of soil maps (Grunwald et al. 2011). The SoilGrids1km data product
(Hengl et al. 2014) is one such example. It is a modeled product that relies on indirect remotely sensed variables, such as Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS), leaf area index (LAI), land surface temperature
(LST), and topography from the SRTM to produce estimates at six depths of soil
organic carbon, soil pH, sand, silt, and clay fractions, bulk density, cation-exchange
capacity, coarse fragments, and depth to bedrock.
Imaging spectroscopy has been broadly applied for geologic mapping (Goetz
et al. 1985; Gupta 2013). Multispectral imagery, like NASA’s ASTER instrument
and the European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) Sentinel-2 satellite, that is part of the
10 Remote Sensing of Geodiversity as a Link to Biodiversity
only once. In geologically and tectonically active areas and areas where humans are
influencing geology, satellite-derived data can be used to detect even very small
changes over time. For example, Ge et al. (2014) used synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) interferometry to detect subsidence in the Bandung Basin (Indonesia) likely
due to groundwater extraction. Yun et al. (2015) used SAR data to map areas of
change and potential damage after the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in central Nepal.
Using SAR instruments in concert with LiDAR instruments on airborne flights has
allowed for greater than 30 cm vertical accuracy (Corbley 2010). The launch of the
Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) mission onboard the International
Space Station has the potential to allow for improved global topographic data
(Stavros et al. 2017).
10.3.1.2 Lithosphere: Geology and Soils
Geology consists of several subdisciplines, including lithology, tectonics, volcanology, and seismology. A modern geologic “map” in a geographic information system
(GIS) framework may include polygons outlining the different substrate types and
their ages, lines showing faults, and points identifying small outcrops or places
where cores were collected. These static (unchanging through time) representations
are developed through the painstaking work of geologists who gather in-situ records
of rock type and estimates of geologic feature extents. Geologic maps vary in quality and access due largely to the density and biases of field technicians. When considering long-term evolutionary histories that generate deeper phylogenetic patterns,
geological processes of uplift and erosion can become important (Cowling et al.
2009). Nevertheless, for more historically proximate species, community assembly,
the available minerals, substrate structure, and topography are likely to play a more
important role, especially in plants. For example, although all locations across the
Mauna Loa environmental matrix in Hawai’i share a common parent material,
differences in age, texture, and nutrient availability (due to variation in climate and
weathering) lead to dramatically different vegetation patterns (Vitousek et al. 1992).
Similar to geologic maps, soil maps are typically developed through fieldwork
and image interpretation for a single time period. Nevertheless, soils have higher
spatial variability than bedrock and may change rapidly in response to natural or
man-made disturbance. Recently there have been calls to improve the quality and
dynamism of soil maps (Grunwald et al. 2011). The SoilGrids1km data product
(Hengl et al. 2014) is one such example. It is a modeled product that relies on indirect remotely sensed variables, such as Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS), leaf area index (LAI), land surface temperature
(LST), and topography from the SRTM to produce estimates at six depths of soil
organic carbon, soil pH, sand, silt, and clay fractions, bulk density, cation-exchange
capacity, coarse fragments, and depth to bedrock.
Imaging spectroscopy has been broadly applied for geologic mapping (Goetz
et al. 1985; Gupta 2013). Multispectral imagery, like NASA’s ASTER instrument
and the European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) Sentinel-2 satellite, that is part of the
10 Remote Sensing of Geodiversity as a Link to Biodiversity