genes, especially duckweed-specific genes,
requires intensive experimental analysis on
functional characterization. The future functional
genomics in duckweeds will be in line with new
robust, precise and versatile genome editing tools
(for review, see Cao et al. 2016b) which not only
knocks out unwanted genes but also precisely
replace or insert single nucleotides, single gene
or multiple genes of a specific agronomic trait
(“trait stacking”).
In recent years, the field of duckweed research
and applications has entered the post-genomic
era with a growing number of large-scale-omics
datasets generated from different duckweed species, for example, whole genome resequencing of
68 S. polyrhiza ecotypes/genotypes representing
the global distribution of the species illustrated
that the low genetic variation was associated with
low mutation rate in duckweeds (Xu et al. 2019).
Examination of growing genomic, epigenomic,
transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic
resources would facilitate dissecting the genetics
underlying the fast growth rate, turion formation,
protein content and other important physiological
and agronomic traits of duckweeds (An et al.
2018). Future work should critically enable the
systematic and comprehensive interpretation of
these resources, in an ideal model, from an
online, open and evolving catalog.
Given the understanding that incremental
gains in conventional agriculture will not meet
resource demand in 2050, most experts in this
field preach the importance of novel breakthrough
technologies. Large-scale research grants from
the world’s great nations aimed at long-term
funding of multiple academic laboratories and
companies across the world in a collaborative
way, similar to the duckweed genome initiative,
would be a great way to foster cooperation and
accelerate research in understanding and utilizing
duckweed, as well as other promising new crops.
To successfully implement the manifold potential
use of duckweed and finally to create a new
industry, we anticipate the importance of collaborations between academic and commercial
partners, of which the involvement of commercial
stakeholders starts from the very beginning.
18.3 Future Prospects
in Duckweed-Based
Applications
While duckweeds have been used as a livestock
feed for centuries and harvested for human
consumption in Southeast Asia so long, it has
been incorporated into traditional cuisine, they
have been overlooked and under-utilized for
most of history. There was a spike in commercial interest during the oil crisis of the 1970s,
including an analysis of traditional duckweed
harvesting (Bhanthumnavin and Mcgarry 1971),
followed by a lull. At the same time from 1950
to 1990, there was strong academic interest in
the duckweed family as a simple model plant to
understand the physiology of crops of the day,
yet the Lemnaceae was not seen as a crop at the
time. Then, the 1990s provided both an economic model for duckweed water treatment and
farming in the form of the book “Duckweed
Aquaculture” (Skillicorn et al. 1993) and the
first attempt to produce plantibodiesTM in
duckweed by Biolex, which unfortunately went
out of business. Then, there was a sustained
academic and commercial interest in this plant
family since the late 2000s, likely fueled by the
2008 oil price that has lasted till the present day
2019. This decade of duckweed research
including multiple genome sequences and transcriptomic studies, physiology research, nutritional and animal feed studies, and advances in
genetic engineering across the family has led to
a much deeper understanding of these plants.
Combined with a renewed interest in biofuels,
more toxicological testing, greater demand for
water treatment, the need for alternative food
and protein sources, and a medical interest in
“biologics” aka therapeutic proteins, we have
seen a recent revolution in duckweed applications and companies thoroughly reviewed in
Chap. 1 and summarized or restated here. Considering that there is virtually no duckweed
focused company more than 10 years old this is
an extremely new industry which probably has
more future ahead of it than past behind it
(Table 18.1).
18 Future Prospects of Duckweed Research and Applications
181
requires intensive experimental analysis on
functional characterization. The future functional
genomics in duckweeds will be in line with new
robust, precise and versatile genome editing tools
(for review, see Cao et al. 2016b) which not only
knocks out unwanted genes but also precisely
replace or insert single nucleotides, single gene
or multiple genes of a specific agronomic trait
(“trait stacking”).
In recent years, the field of duckweed research
and applications has entered the post-genomic
era with a growing number of large-scale-omics
datasets generated from different duckweed species, for example, whole genome resequencing of
68 S. polyrhiza ecotypes/genotypes representing
the global distribution of the species illustrated
that the low genetic variation was associated with
low mutation rate in duckweeds (Xu et al. 2019).
Examination of growing genomic, epigenomic,
transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic
resources would facilitate dissecting the genetics
underlying the fast growth rate, turion formation,
protein content and other important physiological
and agronomic traits of duckweeds (An et al.
2018). Future work should critically enable the
systematic and comprehensive interpretation of
these resources, in an ideal model, from an
online, open and evolving catalog.
Given the understanding that incremental
gains in conventional agriculture will not meet
resource demand in 2050, most experts in this
field preach the importance of novel breakthrough
technologies. Large-scale research grants from
the world’s great nations aimed at long-term
funding of multiple academic laboratories and
companies across the world in a collaborative
way, similar to the duckweed genome initiative,
would be a great way to foster cooperation and
accelerate research in understanding and utilizing
duckweed, as well as other promising new crops.
To successfully implement the manifold potential
use of duckweed and finally to create a new
industry, we anticipate the importance of collaborations between academic and commercial
partners, of which the involvement of commercial
stakeholders starts from the very beginning.
18.3 Future Prospects
in Duckweed-Based
Applications
While duckweeds have been used as a livestock
feed for centuries and harvested for human
consumption in Southeast Asia so long, it has
been incorporated into traditional cuisine, they
have been overlooked and under-utilized for
most of history. There was a spike in commercial interest during the oil crisis of the 1970s,
including an analysis of traditional duckweed
harvesting (Bhanthumnavin and Mcgarry 1971),
followed by a lull. At the same time from 1950
to 1990, there was strong academic interest in
the duckweed family as a simple model plant to
understand the physiology of crops of the day,
yet the Lemnaceae was not seen as a crop at the
time. Then, the 1990s provided both an economic model for duckweed water treatment and
farming in the form of the book “Duckweed
Aquaculture” (Skillicorn et al. 1993) and the
first attempt to produce plantibodiesTM in
duckweed by Biolex, which unfortunately went
out of business. Then, there was a sustained
academic and commercial interest in this plant
family since the late 2000s, likely fueled by the
2008 oil price that has lasted till the present day
2019. This decade of duckweed research
including multiple genome sequences and transcriptomic studies, physiology research, nutritional and animal feed studies, and advances in
genetic engineering across the family has led to
a much deeper understanding of these plants.
Combined with a renewed interest in biofuels,
more toxicological testing, greater demand for
water treatment, the need for alternative food
and protein sources, and a medical interest in
“biologics” aka therapeutic proteins, we have
seen a recent revolution in duckweed applications and companies thoroughly reviewed in
Chap. 1 and summarized or restated here. Considering that there is virtually no duckweed
focused company more than 10 years old this is
an extremely new industry which probably has
more future ahead of it than past behind it
(Table 18.1).
18 Future Prospects of Duckweed Research and Applications
181