164 S. Bolwig et al.
application’s place in the waste pyramid. Sections 9.3 and 9.4 present the
Norwegian and Danish case studies, respectively. Here we discuss the development and key features of the dairy sectors in both countries, the main characteristics of the dominant dairy company in each country (TINE and Arla
Foods) and how these two dairies utilise whey. In section 9.5 we discuss the
key drivers of whey valorisation, analysing the dynamics of whey utilisation
in the two companies (and countries), concerning the structure of the dairy
industry, firm- level characteristics and strategies, and value chain linkages. We
then discuss the implications these case studies have for the sustainability of
different valorisation pathways. Section 9.6 concludes the chapter.
9.2 Properties and uses of acid whey
Never have we eaten so much Greek yoghurt worldwide, and this trend only
seems to be going up. In the USA, approximately 771,000 tons of Greek
yoghurt were produced in 2015, accounting for almost 40% of the yoghurt
market, compared to a market share of only 1–2% in 2004. However, as the
production of Greek yoghurt skyrocketed, so did production of the byproduct, acid whey: for every 100 kg milk used in Greek yoghurt production,
only one third ends up in the final product, while the other two thirds
become acid whey (Arla Foods Ingredients, 2018b). Acid whey is a potential
hazard to the aquatic environment due to its high organic matter content in
the shape of lactose, resulting in a high Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD > 35,000 ppm) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD > 60,000 ppm)
(Ramos et al., 2015; Smithers, 2015). The high BOD level means that the
presence of acid whey in waters would cause a drop in biological oxygen
levels, leading to the elimination of aquatic life. Hence, if other uses cannot
be found, acid whey must be treated as waste water in own or municipal
plants, involving significant financial costs for the dairy as well as socioeconomic costs associated with waste treatment. But acid whey contains
many valuable compounds, providing opportunities for companies to gain
competitive advantage through value- added utilisation of acid whey, as discussed below (Guimarães, Teixeira & Domingues, 2010).
9.2.1 The properties and composition of acid whey
To understand the properties of acid whey, it is useful to understand the
origin of whey. When producing cheese or yoghurts from milk, the milk is
separated into a relatively solid part, which becomes the cheese or yoghurt,
and a yellow liquid part known as whey (Ramos et al., 2015). Whey can be
used directly for animal feed or as a biogas substrate, or processed into a
number of products, especially ingredients in food and feed production; see
Figure 9.1. Whey has a relatively high protein content and low fat content.
There are several types of whey depending on the processing technology used
for the casein removal of liquid milk, where the most common categories are
application’s place in the waste pyramid. Sections 9.3 and 9.4 present the
Norwegian and Danish case studies, respectively. Here we discuss the development and key features of the dairy sectors in both countries, the main characteristics of the dominant dairy company in each country (TINE and Arla
Foods) and how these two dairies utilise whey. In section 9.5 we discuss the
key drivers of whey valorisation, analysing the dynamics of whey utilisation
in the two companies (and countries), concerning the structure of the dairy
industry, firm- level characteristics and strategies, and value chain linkages. We
then discuss the implications these case studies have for the sustainability of
different valorisation pathways. Section 9.6 concludes the chapter.
9.2 Properties and uses of acid whey
Never have we eaten so much Greek yoghurt worldwide, and this trend only
seems to be going up. In the USA, approximately 771,000 tons of Greek
yoghurt were produced in 2015, accounting for almost 40% of the yoghurt
market, compared to a market share of only 1–2% in 2004. However, as the
production of Greek yoghurt skyrocketed, so did production of the byproduct, acid whey: for every 100 kg milk used in Greek yoghurt production,
only one third ends up in the final product, while the other two thirds
become acid whey (Arla Foods Ingredients, 2018b). Acid whey is a potential
hazard to the aquatic environment due to its high organic matter content in
the shape of lactose, resulting in a high Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD > 35,000 ppm) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD > 60,000 ppm)
(Ramos et al., 2015; Smithers, 2015). The high BOD level means that the
presence of acid whey in waters would cause a drop in biological oxygen
levels, leading to the elimination of aquatic life. Hence, if other uses cannot
be found, acid whey must be treated as waste water in own or municipal
plants, involving significant financial costs for the dairy as well as socioeconomic costs associated with waste treatment. But acid whey contains
many valuable compounds, providing opportunities for companies to gain
competitive advantage through value- added utilisation of acid whey, as discussed below (Guimarães, Teixeira & Domingues, 2010).
9.2.1 The properties and composition of acid whey
To understand the properties of acid whey, it is useful to understand the
origin of whey. When producing cheese or yoghurts from milk, the milk is
separated into a relatively solid part, which becomes the cheese or yoghurt,
and a yellow liquid part known as whey (Ramos et al., 2015). Whey can be
used directly for animal feed or as a biogas substrate, or processed into a
number of products, especially ingredients in food and feed production; see
Figure 9.1. Whey has a relatively high protein content and low fat content.
There are several types of whey depending on the processing technology used
for the casein removal of liquid milk, where the most common categories are