rodents can reduce the incidence of ZCL. However, biological control of rodents for
leishmaniasis prevention has both its pros and cons. One of the disadvantages is that
some predators such as foxes are reservoirs of visceral leishmaniasis parasite in Iran
(Nilforoushzadeh et al. 2014). Additionally, some predators of rodents work effectively under certain conditions (Wodzicki 1973). There are some evidence on
decrease in populations of Rattus (Muridae) in South part of the country,
Abu-Musa Island by mongoose (Herpestidae, Carnivora) as predator. However, its
sole impact has not been confirmed yet (Khoobdel et al. 2016). Further research on
the potential and threats of Phlebotomine natural enemies is needed.
16.2.3 Tick-Borne Diseases
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) has been documented as the most
frequent tick-borne viral infection in the country with more than 50 cases annually
(Khakifirouz et al. 2018). The first incidence of CCHF in Iran (Khorasan Province)
dates back in 1978 and 871 confirmed cases of CCHF were reported during
1999–2012 (Berger 2019). The main mode of transmission for CCHF virus is tick
bites but contact to infected blood and livestock meat and nosocomial infection can
also cause CCHF in human (Farhadpour et al. 2016). CCHF has been documented in
almost all provinces of the country, with highly endemic areas including Sistan and
Baluchistan, Razavi Khorasan, Fars, Esfahan, and Kerman (Khakifirouz et al. 2018).
Main local vectors of this disease belong to Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus genera
(Ixodidae) (Farhadpour et al. 2016; Champour et al. 2016). The unique feeding
behavior to find their host in each developmental stage may result in more difficulties
for their control. Indiscriminate use of acaricides is not sensible due to their
environmental hazards, milk contamination and resistance development in target
species (Onofre et al. 2001).
According to Kalsbeek et al. (1995) entomopathogenic fungi play an important
role in regulating the population of Ixodes ricinus (Ixodidae) and females are the
most frequently infected stage by B. bassiana, Beauveria brongniartii,
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Cordycipitaceae) and Verticillium aranearum
(Plectosphaerellaceae). Additionally, application of entomopathogenic fungi for
tick burden on cattle in South America has obtained promising results (Kaya and
Hassan 2000). Gindin et al. (2002) emphasize that biological control of the tick
vectors with entomopathogenic fungi is feasible as there is a high chance of finding a
fungal strain pathogenic for all tick stages of several tick species. To enhance the
efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi in field, selection of highly lethal strain, hosttargeted application, dose optimization, delivery medium and timing have been
suggested (Ostfeld et al. 2006).
Effective concentration of B. bassiana to prevent eclosion of Rhipicephalus
microplus Canestrini, 1887 (Acari: Ixodidae) has to be 10
7
–10
8 conidia/ml for
field application (Bittencourt et al. 1997). In a similar study, minimum concentration
of 1.5 Â 10
6 spores/ml of B. bassiana was estimated to induce infection and can be
16 Biocontrol for Arthropods of Medical and Veterinary Importance in Iran
589
leishmaniasis prevention has both its pros and cons. One of the disadvantages is that
some predators such as foxes are reservoirs of visceral leishmaniasis parasite in Iran
(Nilforoushzadeh et al. 2014). Additionally, some predators of rodents work effectively under certain conditions (Wodzicki 1973). There are some evidence on
decrease in populations of Rattus (Muridae) in South part of the country,
Abu-Musa Island by mongoose (Herpestidae, Carnivora) as predator. However, its
sole impact has not been confirmed yet (Khoobdel et al. 2016). Further research on
the potential and threats of Phlebotomine natural enemies is needed.
16.2.3 Tick-Borne Diseases
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) has been documented as the most
frequent tick-borne viral infection in the country with more than 50 cases annually
(Khakifirouz et al. 2018). The first incidence of CCHF in Iran (Khorasan Province)
dates back in 1978 and 871 confirmed cases of CCHF were reported during
1999–2012 (Berger 2019). The main mode of transmission for CCHF virus is tick
bites but contact to infected blood and livestock meat and nosocomial infection can
also cause CCHF in human (Farhadpour et al. 2016). CCHF has been documented in
almost all provinces of the country, with highly endemic areas including Sistan and
Baluchistan, Razavi Khorasan, Fars, Esfahan, and Kerman (Khakifirouz et al. 2018).
Main local vectors of this disease belong to Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus genera
(Ixodidae) (Farhadpour et al. 2016; Champour et al. 2016). The unique feeding
behavior to find their host in each developmental stage may result in more difficulties
for their control. Indiscriminate use of acaricides is not sensible due to their
environmental hazards, milk contamination and resistance development in target
species (Onofre et al. 2001).
According to Kalsbeek et al. (1995) entomopathogenic fungi play an important
role in regulating the population of Ixodes ricinus (Ixodidae) and females are the
most frequently infected stage by B. bassiana, Beauveria brongniartii,
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Cordycipitaceae) and Verticillium aranearum
(Plectosphaerellaceae). Additionally, application of entomopathogenic fungi for
tick burden on cattle in South America has obtained promising results (Kaya and
Hassan 2000). Gindin et al. (2002) emphasize that biological control of the tick
vectors with entomopathogenic fungi is feasible as there is a high chance of finding a
fungal strain pathogenic for all tick stages of several tick species. To enhance the
efficacy of entomopathogenic fungi in field, selection of highly lethal strain, hosttargeted application, dose optimization, delivery medium and timing have been
suggested (Ostfeld et al. 2006).
Effective concentration of B. bassiana to prevent eclosion of Rhipicephalus
microplus Canestrini, 1887 (Acari: Ixodidae) has to be 10
7
–10
8 conidia/ml for
field application (Bittencourt et al. 1997). In a similar study, minimum concentration
of 1.5 Â 10
6 spores/ml of B. bassiana was estimated to induce infection and can be
16 Biocontrol for Arthropods of Medical and Veterinary Importance in Iran
589