larvae without mass rearing and release (Tabibzadeh et al. 1970). However, investigation into native larvivorous fish in southern Iran showed that the presence of
G. holbrooki resulted in reduced biodiversity in breeding sites. The use of Gambusia
fish in malaria control programs is a serious threat for native species like Aphanius in
its distribution area and employment of native mosquito fish is much more
recommended than non-native species in malaria control (Shahi et al. 2015). Ecology and behavior of larvivorous fish and mosquito larvae should be considered in
every release strategy (Arthington and Marshall 1999).
Gambusia species are usually not very effective in reducing malaria transmission,
although they are more likely to reduce malaria in arid areas in countries such as Iran,
Afghanistan, Somalia and Ethiopia where larval habitats are discrete and permanent
(Service and Service 2012).
Four species of carnivorous plant, Utricularia (Lentibulariaceae) including
U. ochroleuca, U. minor, U. vulgaris and U. australis, collected from wetlands
and lakes situated in various climates of Iran, have been reported (Dinarvand 2012).
This genus can trap and ingest mosquito larvae.
16.2.1.2 Parasites and Pathogens of Malaria Vectors
16.2.1.2.1 Nematodes
Mermithids have received attention as biological alternative to chemical insecticides
due to lethality to their hosts and potential for mass rearing (Alavo et al. 2015).
Because of a host range that includes mosquitoes of public health importance,
Romanomermis iyengari, Strelkovimermis spiculatus and Romanomermis
culicivorax (Nematode: Mermithidae) have been massively released across the
world to control vector mosquitoes (Alavo et al. 2015; Achinelly and Micieli
2009; Platzer 2007).
The only release of mermithids in Iran dates back to inundative release of an
imported R. culicivorax in anopheline and culicine habitats in Fars and Sistan and
Baluchistan provinces during 1984–1985. Inconsistent level of parasitism in different sites hindered the development of this biocontrol agent for control of mosquito
vectors, although the average parasitism ranged between 56% and 69% obtained
24 h post-inoculation. This mermithid established and was recovered from 2 release
sites after 2 years (Zaim et al. 1988).
In a recent study, release of artificially-parasitized Culex pipiens (Diptera:
Culicidae) adults by Strelkovimermis spiculatus (Fig. 16.1) was suggested to control
the vector through autodissemination strategy (Haji Allahverdipour et al. 2017). It is
assumed that these parasitized adult mosquitoes prefer water rather than bloodfeeding and offer a means for mermithids to colonise new host larval habitats
(Haji Allahverdipour et al. 2019).
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H. H. Allahverdipour and K. Akbarzadeh
G. holbrooki resulted in reduced biodiversity in breeding sites. The use of Gambusia
fish in malaria control programs is a serious threat for native species like Aphanius in
its distribution area and employment of native mosquito fish is much more
recommended than non-native species in malaria control (Shahi et al. 2015). Ecology and behavior of larvivorous fish and mosquito larvae should be considered in
every release strategy (Arthington and Marshall 1999).
Gambusia species are usually not very effective in reducing malaria transmission,
although they are more likely to reduce malaria in arid areas in countries such as Iran,
Afghanistan, Somalia and Ethiopia where larval habitats are discrete and permanent
(Service and Service 2012).
Four species of carnivorous plant, Utricularia (Lentibulariaceae) including
U. ochroleuca, U. minor, U. vulgaris and U. australis, collected from wetlands
and lakes situated in various climates of Iran, have been reported (Dinarvand 2012).
This genus can trap and ingest mosquito larvae.
16.2.1.2 Parasites and Pathogens of Malaria Vectors
16.2.1.2.1 Nematodes
Mermithids have received attention as biological alternative to chemical insecticides
due to lethality to their hosts and potential for mass rearing (Alavo et al. 2015).
Because of a host range that includes mosquitoes of public health importance,
Romanomermis iyengari, Strelkovimermis spiculatus and Romanomermis
culicivorax (Nematode: Mermithidae) have been massively released across the
world to control vector mosquitoes (Alavo et al. 2015; Achinelly and Micieli
2009; Platzer 2007).
The only release of mermithids in Iran dates back to inundative release of an
imported R. culicivorax in anopheline and culicine habitats in Fars and Sistan and
Baluchistan provinces during 1984–1985. Inconsistent level of parasitism in different sites hindered the development of this biocontrol agent for control of mosquito
vectors, although the average parasitism ranged between 56% and 69% obtained
24 h post-inoculation. This mermithid established and was recovered from 2 release
sites after 2 years (Zaim et al. 1988).
In a recent study, release of artificially-parasitized Culex pipiens (Diptera:
Culicidae) adults by Strelkovimermis spiculatus (Fig. 16.1) was suggested to control
the vector through autodissemination strategy (Haji Allahverdipour et al. 2017). It is
assumed that these parasitized adult mosquitoes prefer water rather than bloodfeeding and offer a means for mermithids to colonise new host larval habitats
(Haji Allahverdipour et al. 2019).
582
H. H. Allahverdipour and K. Akbarzadeh