oviposition period of female, chemical control is insufficient. So, in an experiment,
the efficiency of two native species of Steinernema sp. and H. bacteriophora, against
S. myopaeformis was evaluated in a heavily infested apple orchard by Parvizi (2003).
A concentration of 10
6 IJs/300 cm
3 of distilled water of Steinernema sp. and
H. bacteriophora were sprayed onto the trunks of infested trees. The outcomes
showed that Steinernema sp. (up to 60% mortality) is more efficient against
S. myopaeformis in comparison to H. bacteriophora (less than 6% mortality).
These observations in combination with additional studies in other countries about
efficiency of EPNs on S. myopaeformis suggest that EPNs could be a suitable agent
in IPM program against this pest.
12.3.2.8 The Acorn Weevil, Curculio glandium Marsham, 1802
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Oak forests are important ecosystems, which play significant roles in the world. An
important pest of the oak forest is the acorn weevil, Curculio glandium Marsham,
1802 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), which its larvae feed on the oak seed. Its damage,
for example, in the Hatam-Mashaci forest, located near the city of Meshkin-Shahr,
East Azerbaijan province, had a severe influence on oak regeneration, inducing
rotting of almost 70% of oak acorns (Arefipour et al. 2005). The larvae feed and
develop within the acorns, and when the ripe acorns fall to the ground, fully
developed larvae cease feeding and burrow into the soil to overwinter. Application
of chemical pesticide in the soil of oak forests for control this pest has an adverse
effect on natural biodiversity and soil biota. Considering the life cycle of pest which
live in the soil for overwintering, EPNs can be a potential agent in controlling
C. glandium in such vulnerable ecosystems.
Nikdel et al. (2008) conducted a study to determine the potential of native species
of EPNs, H. bacteriophora and S. bicornutum, against fifth instar larval of acorn
weevil. Bioassays were carried out under laboratory conditions, at two temperature
ranges (21–24
C and 25–28
C). They observed that the penetration rate of
H. bacteriophora (1.6%) was higher than S. bicornutum (0.55%). Also, the maximum mortality rates caused by H. bacteriophora and S. bicornutum were 58.3% and
25% (at 21–24
C) and 63.5% and 30.5% (at 25–28
C), respectively. Therefore, it
seems that the application of EPNs as biocontrol agents against oak pest including
C. glandium could be an effective recommended strategy to Government Forestry
Services.
12.3.2.9 The Leopard Moth, Zeuzera pyrina L., 1761 (Lepidoptera:
Cossidae)
The leopard moth borer, Zeuzera pyrina L., 1761 (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) is a
polyphagous pest with increasing importance in some countries. The pest attacks
more than 150 plant species of up to 20 taxonomic genera, including walnut, apple,
12 Entomopathogenic and Insect Parasitic Nematodes
493
the efficiency of two native species of Steinernema sp. and H. bacteriophora, against
S. myopaeformis was evaluated in a heavily infested apple orchard by Parvizi (2003).
A concentration of 10
6 IJs/300 cm
3 of distilled water of Steinernema sp. and
H. bacteriophora were sprayed onto the trunks of infested trees. The outcomes
showed that Steinernema sp. (up to 60% mortality) is more efficient against
S. myopaeformis in comparison to H. bacteriophora (less than 6% mortality).
These observations in combination with additional studies in other countries about
efficiency of EPNs on S. myopaeformis suggest that EPNs could be a suitable agent
in IPM program against this pest.
12.3.2.8 The Acorn Weevil, Curculio glandium Marsham, 1802
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Oak forests are important ecosystems, which play significant roles in the world. An
important pest of the oak forest is the acorn weevil, Curculio glandium Marsham,
1802 (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), which its larvae feed on the oak seed. Its damage,
for example, in the Hatam-Mashaci forest, located near the city of Meshkin-Shahr,
East Azerbaijan province, had a severe influence on oak regeneration, inducing
rotting of almost 70% of oak acorns (Arefipour et al. 2005). The larvae feed and
develop within the acorns, and when the ripe acorns fall to the ground, fully
developed larvae cease feeding and burrow into the soil to overwinter. Application
of chemical pesticide in the soil of oak forests for control this pest has an adverse
effect on natural biodiversity and soil biota. Considering the life cycle of pest which
live in the soil for overwintering, EPNs can be a potential agent in controlling
C. glandium in such vulnerable ecosystems.
Nikdel et al. (2008) conducted a study to determine the potential of native species
of EPNs, H. bacteriophora and S. bicornutum, against fifth instar larval of acorn
weevil. Bioassays were carried out under laboratory conditions, at two temperature
ranges (21–24
C and 25–28
C). They observed that the penetration rate of
H. bacteriophora (1.6%) was higher than S. bicornutum (0.55%). Also, the maximum mortality rates caused by H. bacteriophora and S. bicornutum were 58.3% and
25% (at 21–24
C) and 63.5% and 30.5% (at 25–28
C), respectively. Therefore, it
seems that the application of EPNs as biocontrol agents against oak pest including
C. glandium could be an effective recommended strategy to Government Forestry
Services.
12.3.2.9 The Leopard Moth, Zeuzera pyrina L., 1761 (Lepidoptera:
Cossidae)
The leopard moth borer, Zeuzera pyrina L., 1761 (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) is a
polyphagous pest with increasing importance in some countries. The pest attacks
more than 150 plant species of up to 20 taxonomic genera, including walnut, apple,
12 Entomopathogenic and Insect Parasitic Nematodes
493