West Azerbaijan province (northwestern Iran) in 2010 and distributed in more than
20 various regions before 2012 (Gharekhani and Salek-Ebrahimi 2013). This multivoltine pest mines leaves, fruits, flowers, buds, and stems, which feeding damage
causes important yield losses. There are reports regarding insecticide resistance
development in populations of T. absoluta (Lietti et al. 2005). Hence, using of
IPM program with an emphasis on biocontrol agents, like EPNs, against this pest
is highlighted, as entomopathogens such as S. feltiae, S. carpocapsae, and
H. bacteriophora, have showed efficacy versus T. absoluta in laboratory and growth
chamber (Batalla-Carrera et al. 2010; Garcia-del-Pino et al. 2013).
Kamali et al. (2017) designed a series of experiments to identify the possible
relations among concentration of IJs, soil type, temperature and exposure time, using
two species H. bacteriophora and S. carpocapsae against different life stages of
T. absoluta. The results showed that the last larval instar of leaf miner was highly
susceptible to both S. carpocapsae and H. bacteriophora. The calculated LC 50 value
after plate assay was 2 IJs/cm
2 for S. carpocapsae and 1 IJs/cm
2 for
H. bacteriophora. The highest mortality percentage occurred in the coco peat
substrate (92.6%) and loamy sand (88.9%), and the lowest level was observed in
the sandy loam soil (16.8%). The optimal temperature for the infectivity of
H. bacteriophora was 25 Æ 1
C, while for S. carpocapsae it was 31 Æ 1
C,
which caused a maximum mortality rate of 96.0% and 90.6%, respectively. The
exposure of last larval instar to S. carpocapsae for 240 min was sufficient for an
infection of 95.5% of the larvae, whereas 76.9% of the last larval instar infected after
65 min by the same concentration (20 IJs/cm
2 ). In their observations, they found that
larvae died inside the galleries after the treatment of tomato plant leaves. Considering the results, they argued that EPNs species such as S. carpocapsae need a short
time to find and infect the leaf miner larvae within the galleries, as the first 65 min
post-application was adequate time for this event. They argued that temperature was
not a limiting factor for S. carpocapsae and H. bacteriophora in their study. Kamali
et al. (2017) suggested both species has potential to use in T. absoluta management
programs.
Based on their experience, it seems these entomopathogens will be effective when
pest population is low. In this case, using pheromones for pest monitoring will help
to promote the right time for EPNs applications in green house, when pest population
is still low.
12.3.2.7 The Apple Clearwing Moth, Synanthedon myopaeformis
Borkhausen, 1789 (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)
The apple clearwing moth, Synanthedon myopaeformis Borkhausen, 1789 (Lepidoptera, Sesiidae) is an economic pest in apple orchards. The larvae exist under tree
bark, feed on sap and create galleries between the ross and the cambium layer. The
larval feeding behavior leads to a decrease in yield and weakens the host tree,
increases susceptibility to bark beetles and fungal diseases. Due to the cryptic habitat
of larvae, where they are protected from insecticidal sprays, as well as long
492
J. Karimi and M. Hassani-Kakhki
20 various regions before 2012 (Gharekhani and Salek-Ebrahimi 2013). This multivoltine pest mines leaves, fruits, flowers, buds, and stems, which feeding damage
causes important yield losses. There are reports regarding insecticide resistance
development in populations of T. absoluta (Lietti et al. 2005). Hence, using of
IPM program with an emphasis on biocontrol agents, like EPNs, against this pest
is highlighted, as entomopathogens such as S. feltiae, S. carpocapsae, and
H. bacteriophora, have showed efficacy versus T. absoluta in laboratory and growth
chamber (Batalla-Carrera et al. 2010; Garcia-del-Pino et al. 2013).
Kamali et al. (2017) designed a series of experiments to identify the possible
relations among concentration of IJs, soil type, temperature and exposure time, using
two species H. bacteriophora and S. carpocapsae against different life stages of
T. absoluta. The results showed that the last larval instar of leaf miner was highly
susceptible to both S. carpocapsae and H. bacteriophora. The calculated LC 50 value
after plate assay was 2 IJs/cm
2 for S. carpocapsae and 1 IJs/cm
2 for
H. bacteriophora. The highest mortality percentage occurred in the coco peat
substrate (92.6%) and loamy sand (88.9%), and the lowest level was observed in
the sandy loam soil (16.8%). The optimal temperature for the infectivity of
H. bacteriophora was 25 Æ 1
C, while for S. carpocapsae it was 31 Æ 1
C,
which caused a maximum mortality rate of 96.0% and 90.6%, respectively. The
exposure of last larval instar to S. carpocapsae for 240 min was sufficient for an
infection of 95.5% of the larvae, whereas 76.9% of the last larval instar infected after
65 min by the same concentration (20 IJs/cm
2 ). In their observations, they found that
larvae died inside the galleries after the treatment of tomato plant leaves. Considering the results, they argued that EPNs species such as S. carpocapsae need a short
time to find and infect the leaf miner larvae within the galleries, as the first 65 min
post-application was adequate time for this event. They argued that temperature was
not a limiting factor for S. carpocapsae and H. bacteriophora in their study. Kamali
et al. (2017) suggested both species has potential to use in T. absoluta management
programs.
Based on their experience, it seems these entomopathogens will be effective when
pest population is low. In this case, using pheromones for pest monitoring will help
to promote the right time for EPNs applications in green house, when pest population
is still low.
12.3.2.7 The Apple Clearwing Moth, Synanthedon myopaeformis
Borkhausen, 1789 (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)
The apple clearwing moth, Synanthedon myopaeformis Borkhausen, 1789 (Lepidoptera, Sesiidae) is an economic pest in apple orchards. The larvae exist under tree
bark, feed on sap and create galleries between the ross and the cambium layer. The
larval feeding behavior leads to a decrease in yield and weakens the host tree,
increases susceptibility to bark beetles and fungal diseases. Due to the cryptic habitat
of larvae, where they are protected from insecticidal sprays, as well as long
492
J. Karimi and M. Hassani-Kakhki