Walker (Eulophidae) has also presented in the aforementioned citation. Many
Pteromalidae hyperparasitoids are considered in general association with various
host aphids and their parasitoids (Kamijo and Takada 1973; Sullivan 1987). Among
the chalcidoids, an aphelinid, Marietta picta (André) has generally been known as a
hyperparasitoid of the mealy bugs (Talebi et al. 2010; Fallahzadeh et al. 2011),
coccids (Arnaoudov et al. 2006) and even the psyllids (Mehrnejad and Emami
2005), but it is also found as aphid hyperparasitoid.
One of the most common aphid hyperparasitoids is Syrphophagous aphidivorus
(Mayr) belonging to the large family Encyrtidae. The female parasitoid has a distinct
preference on the mummified aphid, in which the host aphid is killed and the primary
parasitoid is already pupated (Buitenhuis et al. 2004). It can be a competitive
behavior to other hyperparasitoids (Matejko and Sullivan 1984) and may reduce
the risk of later attack of the host by other female hyperparasitoids (Roitberg and
Mangel 1988). On the other hand, it can be rather destructive in the mass reared
colonies of aphid parasitoids, where a single foraging female can destroy several
mummies in few hours.
Dendrocerus carpenteri (Curtis) is also a common aphid hyperparasitoid that has
been recorded in various regions of the country both in field crops and fruit orchards
(Rezaei et al. 2006; Rakhshani et al. 2009; Darsoei et al. 2011; Jafari and Modarres
Awal 2012; Rakhshani 2012; Farsi et al. 2014). Members of the superfamily
Cynipoidea are known as phytophagous group, but surprisingly majority of them
are parasitoids of other insects. The genera Alloxysta and Phaenoglyphis from the
subfamily Charipinae (Figitidae) are obligatory endo-hyperparasitoids of aphids
(Carver 1992). While some patterns of host specificity are recorded for the
Charipinae aphid hyperparasitoids (Rakhshani et al. 2001; Lotfalizadeh and van
Veen 2004), it seems as only a local isolation and greatly depending on the host plant
community and ecological niches. Qualitative analysis of the trophic association for
aphid, primary parasitoids and their Alloxysta hyperparasitoids were indicated to
manifest no pattern of host specificity, but some species have few or only one host
record (Ferrer-Suay et al. 2014a).
The recent revision of Charipinae aphid hyperparasitoids in Iran revealed existence of many species occurred within a wide range of natural habitats and agroecosystems (Khayrandish-Koshkooei et al. 2013; Ferrer-Suay et al. 2013a, b, 2014b,
2015). A summary of the recorded Charipinae from Iran as well as their host
associations is presented in Table 9.7. As a general framework for the future studies
both on host associations and biological control programs, it is necessary to pay
enough attention to the associated hyperparasitoids.
In the native area, the hyperparasitoids are believed to have a regulatory role of
the population dynamic of both aphids and their parasitoids (Bennett 1981;
Mackauer and Völkl 1993), but long-term, multi-generation experiments are needed
to test the hypothesis of stabilizing effects by the hyperparasitoids on the herbivoreparasitoid interaction (Rosenheim 1998).
364
E. Rakhshani and P. Starý
Pteromalidae hyperparasitoids are considered in general association with various
host aphids and their parasitoids (Kamijo and Takada 1973; Sullivan 1987). Among
the chalcidoids, an aphelinid, Marietta picta (André) has generally been known as a
hyperparasitoid of the mealy bugs (Talebi et al. 2010; Fallahzadeh et al. 2011),
coccids (Arnaoudov et al. 2006) and even the psyllids (Mehrnejad and Emami
2005), but it is also found as aphid hyperparasitoid.
One of the most common aphid hyperparasitoids is Syrphophagous aphidivorus
(Mayr) belonging to the large family Encyrtidae. The female parasitoid has a distinct
preference on the mummified aphid, in which the host aphid is killed and the primary
parasitoid is already pupated (Buitenhuis et al. 2004). It can be a competitive
behavior to other hyperparasitoids (Matejko and Sullivan 1984) and may reduce
the risk of later attack of the host by other female hyperparasitoids (Roitberg and
Mangel 1988). On the other hand, it can be rather destructive in the mass reared
colonies of aphid parasitoids, where a single foraging female can destroy several
mummies in few hours.
Dendrocerus carpenteri (Curtis) is also a common aphid hyperparasitoid that has
been recorded in various regions of the country both in field crops and fruit orchards
(Rezaei et al. 2006; Rakhshani et al. 2009; Darsoei et al. 2011; Jafari and Modarres
Awal 2012; Rakhshani 2012; Farsi et al. 2014). Members of the superfamily
Cynipoidea are known as phytophagous group, but surprisingly majority of them
are parasitoids of other insects. The genera Alloxysta and Phaenoglyphis from the
subfamily Charipinae (Figitidae) are obligatory endo-hyperparasitoids of aphids
(Carver 1992). While some patterns of host specificity are recorded for the
Charipinae aphid hyperparasitoids (Rakhshani et al. 2001; Lotfalizadeh and van
Veen 2004), it seems as only a local isolation and greatly depending on the host plant
community and ecological niches. Qualitative analysis of the trophic association for
aphid, primary parasitoids and their Alloxysta hyperparasitoids were indicated to
manifest no pattern of host specificity, but some species have few or only one host
record (Ferrer-Suay et al. 2014a).
The recent revision of Charipinae aphid hyperparasitoids in Iran revealed existence of many species occurred within a wide range of natural habitats and agroecosystems (Khayrandish-Koshkooei et al. 2013; Ferrer-Suay et al. 2013a, b, 2014b,
2015). A summary of the recorded Charipinae from Iran as well as their host
associations is presented in Table 9.7. As a general framework for the future studies
both on host associations and biological control programs, it is necessary to pay
enough attention to the associated hyperparasitoids.
In the native area, the hyperparasitoids are believed to have a regulatory role of
the population dynamic of both aphids and their parasitoids (Bennett 1981;
Mackauer and Völkl 1993), but long-term, multi-generation experiments are needed
to test the hypothesis of stabilizing effects by the hyperparasitoids on the herbivoreparasitoid interaction (Rosenheim 1998).
364
E. Rakhshani and P. Starý