45
2.8.2 Dairy Animals
Several countries have started resistance surveillance and monitoring programs
focussing veterinary system. In 1997, the World Organization for Animal Health
(OIE) planned standards pertaining to resistance surveillance (Diaz 2013). The OIE
Terrestrial Animal Health Code chap. 6.7 describes the synchronization of surveillance and monitoring programs at national level; chap. 6.8 focuses on monitoring of
the antimicrobial usage patterns in dairy animals; chap. 6.9 covers the well throughout use of antimicrobials in veterinary practice; and chap. 6.10 comprises the risk
assessment for antimicrobial resistance emerging from the antimicrobial usage in
animals. These standards were acknowledged in 2003 including WHO Global
Strategy for the containment of antimicrobial resistance. Collaborative consultations between WHO/OIE/FAO specialists led to foundation of Codex Alimentarius
Ad Hoc Inter governmental task force on antimicrobial resistance (CAC 2011). This
task force suggested the “Guidelines for Risk Analysis of Foodborne Antimicrobial
Resistance” later on taken up by the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 2011
(CAC 2011). Surveillance program aims at improved recording of escalating antimicrobial resistance, enhancing the shelf life of antimicrobial drugs, and imparting
guidance for the development and usage of novel antimicrobials. Organization of
monitoring program needs consideration of different factors, like; selection of
appropriate bacterial strains as target, sampling procedures, methods of isolation
and susceptibility testing, data recording, analysis, and reporting. Different monitoring and surveillance programs and methodologies are followed between countries/agencies, which are further influenced by different agricultural practices,
monitoring requirements, and availability of guidelines (Founou et al. 2016; Sharma
et al. 2017) (Table 2.3).
2.9 Information Technology in Resistance Surveillance
Antimicrobial resistance surveillance and usage of antibiotic is composite as
resulted data from a single patient needs analysis of several microorganisms. Such
microorganisms must be subjected to susceptibility testing for several antibiotics
and associated with treatment regimens. When clinical laboratories capture the surveillance data; only Information Technology sector can immediately handle and
club the information to perform thorough and timely analysis at local and national
level. Computer systems can be deployed to investigate the upsurge of resistant
genes and for detection of an outbreak inside a hospital or in a nation; to study antimicrobial resistance profiles of antibiotic resistance; to enter the data for web based
reporting, which enables interpretations and timely analysis; and for providing
automated reports with the aid of space time visualization. Specialists of surveillance understand the potential advantages of automation gained through hardware,
software, and infrastructure, although approaches to establish an information
2 Global Surveillance Programs on Antimicrobial Resistance
2.8.2 Dairy Animals
Several countries have started resistance surveillance and monitoring programs
focussing veterinary system. In 1997, the World Organization for Animal Health
(OIE) planned standards pertaining to resistance surveillance (Diaz 2013). The OIE
Terrestrial Animal Health Code chap. 6.7 describes the synchronization of surveillance and monitoring programs at national level; chap. 6.8 focuses on monitoring of
the antimicrobial usage patterns in dairy animals; chap. 6.9 covers the well throughout use of antimicrobials in veterinary practice; and chap. 6.10 comprises the risk
assessment for antimicrobial resistance emerging from the antimicrobial usage in
animals. These standards were acknowledged in 2003 including WHO Global
Strategy for the containment of antimicrobial resistance. Collaborative consultations between WHO/OIE/FAO specialists led to foundation of Codex Alimentarius
Ad Hoc Inter governmental task force on antimicrobial resistance (CAC 2011). This
task force suggested the “Guidelines for Risk Analysis of Foodborne Antimicrobial
Resistance” later on taken up by the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 2011
(CAC 2011). Surveillance program aims at improved recording of escalating antimicrobial resistance, enhancing the shelf life of antimicrobial drugs, and imparting
guidance for the development and usage of novel antimicrobials. Organization of
monitoring program needs consideration of different factors, like; selection of
appropriate bacterial strains as target, sampling procedures, methods of isolation
and susceptibility testing, data recording, analysis, and reporting. Different monitoring and surveillance programs and methodologies are followed between countries/agencies, which are further influenced by different agricultural practices,
monitoring requirements, and availability of guidelines (Founou et al. 2016; Sharma
et al. 2017) (Table 2.3).
2.9 Information Technology in Resistance Surveillance
Antimicrobial resistance surveillance and usage of antibiotic is composite as
resulted data from a single patient needs analysis of several microorganisms. Such
microorganisms must be subjected to susceptibility testing for several antibiotics
and associated with treatment regimens. When clinical laboratories capture the surveillance data; only Information Technology sector can immediately handle and
club the information to perform thorough and timely analysis at local and national
level. Computer systems can be deployed to investigate the upsurge of resistant
genes and for detection of an outbreak inside a hospital or in a nation; to study antimicrobial resistance profiles of antibiotic resistance; to enter the data for web based
reporting, which enables interpretations and timely analysis; and for providing
automated reports with the aid of space time visualization. Specialists of surveillance understand the potential advantages of automation gained through hardware,
software, and infrastructure, although approaches to establish an information
2 Global Surveillance Programs on Antimicrobial Resistance