9
resistance genes (sulA and sulIII) (Ji et al. 2012). Of course, these data only represent the culturable antibiotic resistant microbial population and huge amount of
antibiotic resistance genes and antibiotic resistance bacteria must be potentially
present in the unculturable portion of the microbiome of these niches (Enne et al.
2008; Zhu et al. 2013).
Many speculate that these unculturable portion of the microbiome act as sink for
many antibiotic resistance genes and need attention to properly mitigate antimicrobial resistance menace. Overall, these factors lead to increased antibiotics residues
in the waste which ultimately end up in the environment. It has been found that
manure and soil in Chinese pig farms have 28,000 times higher concentration of
antibiotic resistance genes as compared to that in agricultural soils in China (Zhu
et al. 2013). This could be because human waste has been dedicated to be treated in
sewage treatment plants which are capable to mitigate dissemination of antibiotic
resistance bacteria from sewage waste to the environment. But it is not the case that
sewage treatment doesn’t cause any antibiotic resistance, although the frequency of
antimicrobial resistance from the treated waste is less as compared to untreated
waste (Di Cesare et al. 2016). In comparison to this, not much care is being given
by animal industry towards careful and regulated disposal of animal farm waste and
manures.
Another aspect of indirect exposure of antibiotics to humans through animal
origin lies in its overuse in street food (Campos et al. 2015). Street food is a huge
phenomenon in developing and developed countries alike, but they come with questionable concerns over their preparation and raw ingredients in countries without
regulation or control. Given the economic costs, street food vendors usually ignore
hygiene, the raw materials are not properly stored and the prepared package is not
served in clean crockery/delivery packets. To compensate for protein amount (or
more money per kilogram), excess proportion of meat is used, which (given the
economic constraints) could be easily sourced from farms using cheaper farm practices, including unregulated usage of antibiotics, poor rearing conditions for the
animal and unhygienic transport and storage of meat items. Many a times, these
vendors are inclined to buy under-treatment diseased animals which are sold at
cheaper prices and have high levels of antibiotics and potentially hazardous agents
(Kim et al. 2013). In South Africa, poultry litter is frequently used as high protein
supplement for farm animals, which is definitely a health hazard, depending upon
the levels of antibiotics to which the poultry was exposed (Soto 2013).
Many antibiotic resistant bacteria have been reported from animal derived food
such as 47% of resistant ones in total Salmonella isolates from meat and milk in
Ethiopia (Joint Expert Advisory Committee on Antibiotic Resistance 1999) while
14% of resistant ones in total E. coli isolates from chicken, milk and egg in India
(European Medicines Agency 2012). These bacteria have resistance against one or
more of the commonly used antibiotics in humans such as penicillin, cephalosporin,
carbapenem, tetracycline, ampicillin, sulphamethoxaxole, trimethoprim and chloramphenicol. If antibiotic usage is unregulated in livestock, it leads to emergence of
many antibiotic resistant animal pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Enterococcus
spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus spp.,
1 Antimicrobial Resistance Paradigm and One-Health Approach
resistance genes (sulA and sulIII) (Ji et al. 2012). Of course, these data only represent the culturable antibiotic resistant microbial population and huge amount of
antibiotic resistance genes and antibiotic resistance bacteria must be potentially
present in the unculturable portion of the microbiome of these niches (Enne et al.
2008; Zhu et al. 2013).
Many speculate that these unculturable portion of the microbiome act as sink for
many antibiotic resistance genes and need attention to properly mitigate antimicrobial resistance menace. Overall, these factors lead to increased antibiotics residues
in the waste which ultimately end up in the environment. It has been found that
manure and soil in Chinese pig farms have 28,000 times higher concentration of
antibiotic resistance genes as compared to that in agricultural soils in China (Zhu
et al. 2013). This could be because human waste has been dedicated to be treated in
sewage treatment plants which are capable to mitigate dissemination of antibiotic
resistance bacteria from sewage waste to the environment. But it is not the case that
sewage treatment doesn’t cause any antibiotic resistance, although the frequency of
antimicrobial resistance from the treated waste is less as compared to untreated
waste (Di Cesare et al. 2016). In comparison to this, not much care is being given
by animal industry towards careful and regulated disposal of animal farm waste and
manures.
Another aspect of indirect exposure of antibiotics to humans through animal
origin lies in its overuse in street food (Campos et al. 2015). Street food is a huge
phenomenon in developing and developed countries alike, but they come with questionable concerns over their preparation and raw ingredients in countries without
regulation or control. Given the economic costs, street food vendors usually ignore
hygiene, the raw materials are not properly stored and the prepared package is not
served in clean crockery/delivery packets. To compensate for protein amount (or
more money per kilogram), excess proportion of meat is used, which (given the
economic constraints) could be easily sourced from farms using cheaper farm practices, including unregulated usage of antibiotics, poor rearing conditions for the
animal and unhygienic transport and storage of meat items. Many a times, these
vendors are inclined to buy under-treatment diseased animals which are sold at
cheaper prices and have high levels of antibiotics and potentially hazardous agents
(Kim et al. 2013). In South Africa, poultry litter is frequently used as high protein
supplement for farm animals, which is definitely a health hazard, depending upon
the levels of antibiotics to which the poultry was exposed (Soto 2013).
Many antibiotic resistant bacteria have been reported from animal derived food
such as 47% of resistant ones in total Salmonella isolates from meat and milk in
Ethiopia (Joint Expert Advisory Committee on Antibiotic Resistance 1999) while
14% of resistant ones in total E. coli isolates from chicken, milk and egg in India
(European Medicines Agency 2012). These bacteria have resistance against one or
more of the commonly used antibiotics in humans such as penicillin, cephalosporin,
carbapenem, tetracycline, ampicillin, sulphamethoxaxole, trimethoprim and chloramphenicol. If antibiotic usage is unregulated in livestock, it leads to emergence of
many antibiotic resistant animal pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Enterococcus
spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus spp.,
1 Antimicrobial Resistance Paradigm and One-Health Approach