5
animals because they are frequently exposed to antibiotics via water and/or feed, for
preventing infection. It has been estimated that livestock consume almost 50–80%
of total antibiotics used and it was estimated to be about 63,151 ± 1560 tons in 2010
(Cully 2014; Van Boeckel et al. 2015). This is in essence prophylaxis, and it contributes to huge proportion of antibiotic leakage due to surface run-off, to the environment. Even during individual infection in food animals, the whole group/flock is
administered antibiotics, to prevent any possible dissemination of infection. Group
level treatment of antibiotics are administered for the logic that the food animals
(such as poultry, cattle etc.) are at high risk of bacterial infection owing to bad
hygiene, over-crowded compartments and high exposure to infectious agents during
transport and mixing of animal from different origins. Another unfortunate usage of
mass level (about 26.4 million pounds every year in USA alone), low-dose antibiotics in food animals is to promote growth (Mellon et al. 2001; Oliver et al. 2010). Its
use for growth promotion in animals, depends on long term usage of antibiotics at
sub-therapeutic levels of dose (5–110 parts per million), and is called as ‘metaphylaxis’ (Butaye et al. 2003).
Metaphylaxis could last for more than 2 weeks or entire life of animal and could
bring upto 10% increase in production (World Health Organization 2003). Most
alarming fact is that, most of the antibiotics (fluoroquinolones, colistin and macrolides) used on animals are reserved for treatment of humans with terminal levels of
infection or more simply infections due to multiple drug resistant pathogens (WHO
Advisory Group 2016). These conditions can favor the emergence of multiple drug
resistant microbes, easily transferable to the humans or the environment (FAO/OIE/
WHO 2003). A ready example of such case is zoonotic diseases which are rarely
transmitted through humans, such as fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter spp.
in chicken. Around 8–10,000 people in US alone are estimated to acquire fluoroquinolone resistant Campylobacter infections through chicken (Food and Drug
Administration 2000). But many studies (for e.g. in Denmark, Sweden, etc.), have
shown that raising animals in cleaner condition, appropriate vaccination, and good
hygiene has similar economic effect and antibiotics might not be required (World
Health Organization 2003; Tang et al. 2019). But these industry protocols prevail
across 58 countries supplying food animals and stricter government regulations
need to be applied for stopping this practice (World Health Organization 2003). It is
well known that use of the antibiotics in food animals is largely to compensate for
the prevailing poor animal management conditions (Health Canada 2014; European
Union 2015). Considering many factors, the WHO has recommended and many
other countries have banned or are phasing out the usage of antibiotics in farm animals (Food and Drug Administration 2013a, b; Health Canada 2014; European
Union 2015).
There are few striking examples which highlight the perils of using same class of
antibiotics in humans and animals. Third generation Cephalosporins are critically
important for human health and have wide applicability to diseases and infections
in both humans and animals (WHO Advisory Group 2016). Some antibiotics of this
class are mostly used for treating diseases in animals, but sometimes even in
metaphylaxis. The consumption of Cephalosporins in Europe, US and other
1 Antimicrobial Resistance Paradigm and One-Health Approach
animals because they are frequently exposed to antibiotics via water and/or feed, for
preventing infection. It has been estimated that livestock consume almost 50–80%
of total antibiotics used and it was estimated to be about 63,151 ± 1560 tons in 2010
(Cully 2014; Van Boeckel et al. 2015). This is in essence prophylaxis, and it contributes to huge proportion of antibiotic leakage due to surface run-off, to the environment. Even during individual infection in food animals, the whole group/flock is
administered antibiotics, to prevent any possible dissemination of infection. Group
level treatment of antibiotics are administered for the logic that the food animals
(such as poultry, cattle etc.) are at high risk of bacterial infection owing to bad
hygiene, over-crowded compartments and high exposure to infectious agents during
transport and mixing of animal from different origins. Another unfortunate usage of
mass level (about 26.4 million pounds every year in USA alone), low-dose antibiotics in food animals is to promote growth (Mellon et al. 2001; Oliver et al. 2010). Its
use for growth promotion in animals, depends on long term usage of antibiotics at
sub-therapeutic levels of dose (5–110 parts per million), and is called as ‘metaphylaxis’ (Butaye et al. 2003).
Metaphylaxis could last for more than 2 weeks or entire life of animal and could
bring upto 10% increase in production (World Health Organization 2003). Most
alarming fact is that, most of the antibiotics (fluoroquinolones, colistin and macrolides) used on animals are reserved for treatment of humans with terminal levels of
infection or more simply infections due to multiple drug resistant pathogens (WHO
Advisory Group 2016). These conditions can favor the emergence of multiple drug
resistant microbes, easily transferable to the humans or the environment (FAO/OIE/
WHO 2003). A ready example of such case is zoonotic diseases which are rarely
transmitted through humans, such as fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter spp.
in chicken. Around 8–10,000 people in US alone are estimated to acquire fluoroquinolone resistant Campylobacter infections through chicken (Food and Drug
Administration 2000). But many studies (for e.g. in Denmark, Sweden, etc.), have
shown that raising animals in cleaner condition, appropriate vaccination, and good
hygiene has similar economic effect and antibiotics might not be required (World
Health Organization 2003; Tang et al. 2019). But these industry protocols prevail
across 58 countries supplying food animals and stricter government regulations
need to be applied for stopping this practice (World Health Organization 2003). It is
well known that use of the antibiotics in food animals is largely to compensate for
the prevailing poor animal management conditions (Health Canada 2014; European
Union 2015). Considering many factors, the WHO has recommended and many
other countries have banned or are phasing out the usage of antibiotics in farm animals (Food and Drug Administration 2013a, b; Health Canada 2014; European
Union 2015).
There are few striking examples which highlight the perils of using same class of
antibiotics in humans and animals. Third generation Cephalosporins are critically
important for human health and have wide applicability to diseases and infections
in both humans and animals (WHO Advisory Group 2016). Some antibiotics of this
class are mostly used for treating diseases in animals, but sometimes even in
metaphylaxis. The consumption of Cephalosporins in Europe, US and other
1 Antimicrobial Resistance Paradigm and One-Health Approach