by using portable hand-held air quality monitoring
devices which they carry with them to instantly monitor the levels at the short period of time when they
are onsite. This short time measurement will not accurately reveal the actual pollution levels of the area.
There is the need for a continuous measurement to
determine accurate pollution levels. Therefore we propose an Internet of Things (IoT)-based solution to
help the environmental protection agencies to effectively monitor the level of pollution from mining
activities.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Economic impact of mining
Mining plays a very vital role in the growth of the
economy of most countries in Africa. Large-scale
mining, which is known as legal mining, generates
about 95% of the world’s total mineral production and
employs approximately 2.5 million people worldwide
(Kunanayagam, Mcmahon, Sheldon, Strongman, &
Weber-Fahr 2002). Table 1 represents the gold production of Geita gold mining company in Tanzania
from 2003 to 2011. (Table 1 was adapted from Annual
report archive from 2005 to 2011, AngloGold Ashanti
website). Table 2 represents the gold production of
Obuasi Gold mines in Ghana from 2002 to 2009.
(Table 2 was adapted the AngloGold Ashanti website).
Table 1. Geita gold production from 2003 to 2011 in
Tanzania.
CASH COST
YEAR
PRODUCTION
PER OUNCE
2003
661,000 ounces
US$ 183
2004
570,000 ounces
US$ 250
2005
613,000 ounces
US$ 298
2006
308,000 ounces
US$ 497
2007
327,000 ounces
US$ 452
2008
264,000 ounces
US$ 728
2009
272,000 ounces
US$ 954
2010
357,000 ounces
US$ 777
2011
494,000 ounces
US$ 536
Table 2. Obuasi gold mines production from 2002 to 2009
in Ghana.
CASH COST
YEAR
PRODUTION
PER OUNCE
2002
537,219 ounce
US$ 198
2003
513,163 ounce
US$ 217
2004
255,000 ounce
US$ 305
2005
391,000 ounce
US$ 345
2006
387,000 ounce
US$ 395
2007
360,000 ounce
US$ 459
2008
357,000 ounce
US$ 633
2009
381,000 ounce
US$ 630
The production data of only these two mining sites
were available.
2.2 Effect of pollution from mining in Africa
Air pollution due to harmful gases released into the
atmosphere from various sources has a tremendous
adverse effect on the health of humans. Exposure to
these harmful gases causes millions of deaths per
annum. 6.5 million death in 2012 in middle- and
low-income nations were attributed to outdoor and
indoor pollution (WHO 2018). According to the World
Health Organization, air pollution-related health hazards include stroke, respiratory infections, lung cancer,
and cardiovascular disease.
Mining activities contribute to the increasing level
of air pollution in most of the low-income nations.
Air quality is severely degraded by mining, via the
release of a large quantity of dust into the atmosphere
through their activities, thereby increasing the aerosol
content of the atmosphere. These aerosols or particulate matter range from fine to coarse particles with a
diameter between 2.5 and 1.0 micrometers, i.e., PM 2.5
and PM 10 , respectively. The ability of particulate matter to enter deep into the lungs and the bloodstream
unfiltered makes it the most harmful form of air pollution according to the World Health Organization.
They can cause respiratory diseases, heart attacks, and
even premature death. According to the special report
on global exposure to air pollution in 2018, 4.1 million deaths from heart disease, lung cancer, chronic
lung disease, respiratory infections and stroke in 2016
globally were due to exposure to PM 2.5 .
3 METHODOLOGY
This paper reviews some impacts of mining covered
in some scientific journals. The second part retrieves
the data for PM 2.5 , which is particulate matter released
into the atmosphere by the various mining sites, using
the NASA GIOVANNI system for monthly and seasonal area-averaged time series of dust column mass
density- for a range of years before and after the
mining sites PM 2.5 were established. The NASA GIOVANNI (GES-DISC Interactive Online Visualization
and analysis Infrastructure) system is a web portal to
access satellite-based earth science data. This portal
provides access to NASA’s earth-observing satellite
data that has been accumulated over a period of
time. The mining sites under consideration include
Geita and Bulyanhulu Gold mines in Tanzania, Obuasi
Gold mines and Tarkwa Goldfields in Ghana, and
Karebe and Kilimapesa Gold mines in Kenya. The
PM 2.5 values from the NASA GIOVANNI portal for
the various mining sites are compared with the WHO
PM 2.5 standard monthly and annual mean values. This
helps in determining the pollution produced by these
mining sites over the years. The final part proposes
an Internet of Things (IoT)-based solution to help
the environmental protection agencies to effectively
monitor the pollution level from mining activities.
45
devices which they carry with them to instantly monitor the levels at the short period of time when they
are onsite. This short time measurement will not accurately reveal the actual pollution levels of the area.
There is the need for a continuous measurement to
determine accurate pollution levels. Therefore we propose an Internet of Things (IoT)-based solution to
help the environmental protection agencies to effectively monitor the level of pollution from mining
activities.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Economic impact of mining
Mining plays a very vital role in the growth of the
economy of most countries in Africa. Large-scale
mining, which is known as legal mining, generates
about 95% of the world’s total mineral production and
employs approximately 2.5 million people worldwide
(Kunanayagam, Mcmahon, Sheldon, Strongman, &
Weber-Fahr 2002). Table 1 represents the gold production of Geita gold mining company in Tanzania
from 2003 to 2011. (Table 1 was adapted from Annual
report archive from 2005 to 2011, AngloGold Ashanti
website). Table 2 represents the gold production of
Obuasi Gold mines in Ghana from 2002 to 2009.
(Table 2 was adapted the AngloGold Ashanti website).
Table 1. Geita gold production from 2003 to 2011 in
Tanzania.
CASH COST
YEAR
PRODUCTION
PER OUNCE
2003
661,000 ounces
US$ 183
2004
570,000 ounces
US$ 250
2005
613,000 ounces
US$ 298
2006
308,000 ounces
US$ 497
2007
327,000 ounces
US$ 452
2008
264,000 ounces
US$ 728
2009
272,000 ounces
US$ 954
2010
357,000 ounces
US$ 777
2011
494,000 ounces
US$ 536
Table 2. Obuasi gold mines production from 2002 to 2009
in Ghana.
CASH COST
YEAR
PRODUTION
PER OUNCE
2002
537,219 ounce
US$ 198
2003
513,163 ounce
US$ 217
2004
255,000 ounce
US$ 305
2005
391,000 ounce
US$ 345
2006
387,000 ounce
US$ 395
2007
360,000 ounce
US$ 459
2008
357,000 ounce
US$ 633
2009
381,000 ounce
US$ 630
The production data of only these two mining sites
were available.
2.2 Effect of pollution from mining in Africa
Air pollution due to harmful gases released into the
atmosphere from various sources has a tremendous
adverse effect on the health of humans. Exposure to
these harmful gases causes millions of deaths per
annum. 6.5 million death in 2012 in middle- and
low-income nations were attributed to outdoor and
indoor pollution (WHO 2018). According to the World
Health Organization, air pollution-related health hazards include stroke, respiratory infections, lung cancer,
and cardiovascular disease.
Mining activities contribute to the increasing level
of air pollution in most of the low-income nations.
Air quality is severely degraded by mining, via the
release of a large quantity of dust into the atmosphere
through their activities, thereby increasing the aerosol
content of the atmosphere. These aerosols or particulate matter range from fine to coarse particles with a
diameter between 2.5 and 1.0 micrometers, i.e., PM 2.5
and PM 10 , respectively. The ability of particulate matter to enter deep into the lungs and the bloodstream
unfiltered makes it the most harmful form of air pollution according to the World Health Organization.
They can cause respiratory diseases, heart attacks, and
even premature death. According to the special report
on global exposure to air pollution in 2018, 4.1 million deaths from heart disease, lung cancer, chronic
lung disease, respiratory infections and stroke in 2016
globally were due to exposure to PM 2.5 .
3 METHODOLOGY
This paper reviews some impacts of mining covered
in some scientific journals. The second part retrieves
the data for PM 2.5 , which is particulate matter released
into the atmosphere by the various mining sites, using
the NASA GIOVANNI system for monthly and seasonal area-averaged time series of dust column mass
density- for a range of years before and after the
mining sites PM 2.5 were established. The NASA GIOVANNI (GES-DISC Interactive Online Visualization
and analysis Infrastructure) system is a web portal to
access satellite-based earth science data. This portal
provides access to NASA’s earth-observing satellite
data that has been accumulated over a period of
time. The mining sites under consideration include
Geita and Bulyanhulu Gold mines in Tanzania, Obuasi
Gold mines and Tarkwa Goldfields in Ghana, and
Karebe and Kilimapesa Gold mines in Kenya. The
PM 2.5 values from the NASA GIOVANNI portal for
the various mining sites are compared with the WHO
PM 2.5 standard monthly and annual mean values. This
helps in determining the pollution produced by these
mining sites over the years. The final part proposes
an Internet of Things (IoT)-based solution to help
the environmental protection agencies to effectively
monitor the pollution level from mining activities.
45