the water generated during the reaction continuously.
(3) All batch processes have common limitation in
terms of the difficulty in scaling up for production
of solketal on a large scale. Compared with operation in a batch reactor, a continuous-flow process
produces similar product yields with relatively
shorter reaction times.
(4) The best yields of solketal were achieved
by catalysts like Amberlyst-15, Amberlyst-35,
Amberlyst-36, Ar-SBA-15, Zeolites, and SnCl 2 .
The preferred reaction conditions are: catalysts
with higher acidity, higher A/G, and lower temperature (<70
◦ C). Using Amberlyst-36 wet catalyst,
a very high yield of solketal (9472 wt.%) was
obtained at 25
◦ C, 500 psi, A/G of 4, and WHSV
of 2 h
−1 .
(5) The ketalization reaction proceeds via acidic catalytic mechanism, hence catalysts with strong
acidity might lead to high glycerol conversion.
(6) Heterogeneous catalysts for glycerol ketalization
in a continuous-flow reactor can be deactivated,
attributed to the loss of active acidic sites during
the reaction, not due to fouling. For continuous operation (ranging from a couple of days or
months), however, reactor clogging might occur,
caused by fine particles of disintegrated catalysts.
(7) Direct use of crude glycerol as feedstock may
cause problems such as deactivation of catalyst
(by poisoning the active sites by the impurities) or
plugging of the reactor (due to deposition of high
boiling organic compounds or inorganic salts).
5 RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this review paper is to investigate the
production of solketal through microwave heating and
the use of catalysis with an aim of finding an optimal
production process of solketal from glycerol through
the reduced cost of production.
6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The retrospective nature of the study limits it to the
information it generates from the secondary sources it
uses and it cannot verify the results and arguments put
forward by their authors using experimental designs
because of time constraints.
REFERENCES
Fatimah, I., Sahroni, I., Fadillah, G., Musawwa, M. M.,
Mahlia, T. M. I., & Muraza, O. (2019). Glycerol to Solketal for Fuel Additive: Recent Progress in Heterogeneous
Catalysts. Energies, 12. doi:10.3390/en12152872
Ilgen, O., Yerlikaya, S., & Akyurek, F. O. (2017). Synthesis
of Solketal from Glycerol and Acetone over Amberlyst46 to Produce an Oxygenated Fuel Additive. Periodica Polytechnica Chemical Engineering, 61(2), 144–148.
doi:https://doi.org/10.3311/PPch.8895
Jorge Sepúlveda, Mariana Busto, Carlos Vera, Maraisa
Gonçalves, and, W. C., & Mandelli, D. (2015). Synthesis of Oxygenated Fuel Additives from Glycerol Biofuels
– Status and Perspective: IntechOpen.
Leong, S. K., Lam, S. S., Ani, F. N., Ng, J.-H., &
Chong, C. T. (2016). Production of Pyrolyzed Oil from
Crude Glycerol Using a Microwave Heating Technique.
International Journal of Technology, 2, 323–331. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.14716/ijtech.v7i2.2979
Luma Sh. Al-Saadi, Eze, V. C., & Harvey, A. P. (2019).
A reactive coupling process for co-production of solketal and biodiesel. Green Process Synth, 8, 516–524.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2019-0020
Mota, C. J. A., Silva, C. X. A. d., Nilton Rosenbach, J.,
Costa, J., & Silva, F. d. (2010). Glycerin Derivatives as
Fuel Additives: The Addition of Glycerol/Acetone Ketal
(Solketal) in Gasolines. Energy & Fuels, 24, 2733–2736.
doi:10.1021/ef9015735
Nanda, M. R., Ghaziaskar, H. S., Zhang, Y., Yuan, Z.,
Qin, W., & Xu, C. C. (2016). Catalytic conversion
of glycerol for sustainable production of solketal as
a fuel additive: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 56, 1022–1031. doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.008
Nanda, M. R., Yuan, Z., Qin, W., Ghaziaskar, H. S., Poirier,
M.-A., & Xu, C. C. (2014a). A new continuous-flow process for catalytic conversion of glycerol to oxygenated fuel
additive: Catalyst screening. Applied Energy, 123, 75–81.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.02.055
Nanda, M. R., Yuan, Z., Qin, W., Ghaziaskar, H. S., Poirier,
M.-A., & Xu, C. C. (2014b). Thermodynamic and kinetic
studies of a catalytic process to convert glycerol into
solketal as an oxygenated fuel additive. Fuel, 117.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.09.066
Pandian Manjunathan, Sanjeev P. Maradur, A.B. Halgeri, &
Shanbhag, G. V. (2014). Room temperature synthesis of
solketal from acetalization of glycerol with acetone: Effect
of crystallite size and the role of acidity of beta zeolite. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical, 396.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2014.09.028
Priya, S. S., Selvakannan, P. R., Chary, K. V. R., Kantam, M. L., & Bhargava, S. K. (2017). Solvent-free
microwave-assisted synthesis of solketal from glycerol using transition metal ions promoted mordenite
solid acid catalysts. Molecular Catalysis, 434, 184–193.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mcat.2017.03.001
Rossa, V., Pessanha, Y. d. S. P., Diaz, G. C., Camara, L. D.
T., Pergher, S. B. C., & Aranda, D. A. G. (2017). Reaction
Kinetic Study of Solketal Production from Glycerol Ketalization with Acetone. Industial & Engineering Chemistry
Research, 56(2), 479–488.
Sulistyo, H., Priadana, D. P., Fitriandini, Y. W., Ariyanto, T.,
& Azis, M. M. (2020). Utilization of Glycerol by Ketalization Reactions with Acetone to Produce Solketal using
Indion 225 Na as Catalyst. International Journal of Technology, 11(1), 190–199. doi:10.14716/ijtech.v11i1.3093
Talebian-Kiakalaieh, A., Amin, N. A. S., Najaafi, N., &
Tarighi, S. (2018).A Review on the CatalyticAcetalization
of Bio-renewable Glycerol to Fuel Additives. Frontiers in
Chemistry, 6. doi:10.3389/fchem.2018.00573
Vinicius Rossa, Gisel Chenard Díaz, Germildo Juvenal Muchave, Gomes Aranda, D. A., & Castellã Pergher, S.
B. (2019). Production of Solketal Using Acid Zeolites as
Catalysts. In M. Frediani (Ed.), Glycerine Production and
Transformation – An Innovative Platform for Sustainable
Biorefinery and Energy: IntechOpen.
264
(3) All batch processes have common limitation in
terms of the difficulty in scaling up for production
of solketal on a large scale. Compared with operation in a batch reactor, a continuous-flow process
produces similar product yields with relatively
shorter reaction times.
(4) The best yields of solketal were achieved
by catalysts like Amberlyst-15, Amberlyst-35,
Amberlyst-36, Ar-SBA-15, Zeolites, and SnCl 2 .
The preferred reaction conditions are: catalysts
with higher acidity, higher A/G, and lower temperature (<70
◦ C). Using Amberlyst-36 wet catalyst,
a very high yield of solketal (9472 wt.%) was
obtained at 25
◦ C, 500 psi, A/G of 4, and WHSV
of 2 h
−1 .
(5) The ketalization reaction proceeds via acidic catalytic mechanism, hence catalysts with strong
acidity might lead to high glycerol conversion.
(6) Heterogeneous catalysts for glycerol ketalization
in a continuous-flow reactor can be deactivated,
attributed to the loss of active acidic sites during
the reaction, not due to fouling. For continuous operation (ranging from a couple of days or
months), however, reactor clogging might occur,
caused by fine particles of disintegrated catalysts.
(7) Direct use of crude glycerol as feedstock may
cause problems such as deactivation of catalyst
(by poisoning the active sites by the impurities) or
plugging of the reactor (due to deposition of high
boiling organic compounds or inorganic salts).
5 RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this review paper is to investigate the
production of solketal through microwave heating and
the use of catalysis with an aim of finding an optimal
production process of solketal from glycerol through
the reduced cost of production.
6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The retrospective nature of the study limits it to the
information it generates from the secondary sources it
uses and it cannot verify the results and arguments put
forward by their authors using experimental designs
because of time constraints.
REFERENCES
Fatimah, I., Sahroni, I., Fadillah, G., Musawwa, M. M.,
Mahlia, T. M. I., & Muraza, O. (2019). Glycerol to Solketal for Fuel Additive: Recent Progress in Heterogeneous
Catalysts. Energies, 12. doi:10.3390/en12152872
Ilgen, O., Yerlikaya, S., & Akyurek, F. O. (2017). Synthesis
of Solketal from Glycerol and Acetone over Amberlyst46 to Produce an Oxygenated Fuel Additive. Periodica Polytechnica Chemical Engineering, 61(2), 144–148.
doi:https://doi.org/10.3311/PPch.8895
Jorge Sepúlveda, Mariana Busto, Carlos Vera, Maraisa
Gonçalves, and, W. C., & Mandelli, D. (2015). Synthesis of Oxygenated Fuel Additives from Glycerol Biofuels
– Status and Perspective: IntechOpen.
Leong, S. K., Lam, S. S., Ani, F. N., Ng, J.-H., &
Chong, C. T. (2016). Production of Pyrolyzed Oil from
Crude Glycerol Using a Microwave Heating Technique.
International Journal of Technology, 2, 323–331. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.14716/ijtech.v7i2.2979
Luma Sh. Al-Saadi, Eze, V. C., & Harvey, A. P. (2019).
A reactive coupling process for co-production of solketal and biodiesel. Green Process Synth, 8, 516–524.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1515/gps-2019-0020
Mota, C. J. A., Silva, C. X. A. d., Nilton Rosenbach, J.,
Costa, J., & Silva, F. d. (2010). Glycerin Derivatives as
Fuel Additives: The Addition of Glycerol/Acetone Ketal
(Solketal) in Gasolines. Energy & Fuels, 24, 2733–2736.
doi:10.1021/ef9015735
Nanda, M. R., Ghaziaskar, H. S., Zhang, Y., Yuan, Z.,
Qin, W., & Xu, C. C. (2016). Catalytic conversion
of glycerol for sustainable production of solketal as
a fuel additive: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 56, 1022–1031. doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.008
Nanda, M. R., Yuan, Z., Qin, W., Ghaziaskar, H. S., Poirier,
M.-A., & Xu, C. C. (2014a). A new continuous-flow process for catalytic conversion of glycerol to oxygenated fuel
additive: Catalyst screening. Applied Energy, 123, 75–81.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.02.055
Nanda, M. R., Yuan, Z., Qin, W., Ghaziaskar, H. S., Poirier,
M.-A., & Xu, C. C. (2014b). Thermodynamic and kinetic
studies of a catalytic process to convert glycerol into
solketal as an oxygenated fuel additive. Fuel, 117.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.09.066
Pandian Manjunathan, Sanjeev P. Maradur, A.B. Halgeri, &
Shanbhag, G. V. (2014). Room temperature synthesis of
solketal from acetalization of glycerol with acetone: Effect
of crystallite size and the role of acidity of beta zeolite. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical, 396.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2014.09.028
Priya, S. S., Selvakannan, P. R., Chary, K. V. R., Kantam, M. L., & Bhargava, S. K. (2017). Solvent-free
microwave-assisted synthesis of solketal from glycerol using transition metal ions promoted mordenite
solid acid catalysts. Molecular Catalysis, 434, 184–193.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mcat.2017.03.001
Rossa, V., Pessanha, Y. d. S. P., Diaz, G. C., Camara, L. D.
T., Pergher, S. B. C., & Aranda, D. A. G. (2017). Reaction
Kinetic Study of Solketal Production from Glycerol Ketalization with Acetone. Industial & Engineering Chemistry
Research, 56(2), 479–488.
Sulistyo, H., Priadana, D. P., Fitriandini, Y. W., Ariyanto, T.,
& Azis, M. M. (2020). Utilization of Glycerol by Ketalization Reactions with Acetone to Produce Solketal using
Indion 225 Na as Catalyst. International Journal of Technology, 11(1), 190–199. doi:10.14716/ijtech.v11i1.3093
Talebian-Kiakalaieh, A., Amin, N. A. S., Najaafi, N., &
Tarighi, S. (2018).A Review on the CatalyticAcetalization
of Bio-renewable Glycerol to Fuel Additives. Frontiers in
Chemistry, 6. doi:10.3389/fchem.2018.00573
Vinicius Rossa, Gisel Chenard Díaz, Germildo Juvenal Muchave, Gomes Aranda, D. A., & Castellã Pergher, S.
B. (2019). Production of Solketal Using Acid Zeolites as
Catalysts. In M. Frediani (Ed.), Glycerine Production and
Transformation – An Innovative Platform for Sustainable
Biorefinery and Energy: IntechOpen.
264