Advances in Phytochemistry, Textile and Renewable Energy Research for
Industrial Growth – Nzila et al. (Eds)
© 2022 Copyright the Author(s), ISBN: 978-1-032-11871-0
Open Access: www.taylorfrancis.com, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license
Production of solketal, a fuel additive, through microwave heating and
catalysis
Kenneth K. Shitemi
Eldoret, Kenya
Kirimi Kiriamiti
School of Engineering, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
ABSTRACT: Many efforts are being geared toward finding new sources of alternative energy to replace the
currently used non-renewable fossil fuels. Among the renewable energy resources being looked into, biofuels are
receiving intensive attention. The use of biofuels and fossil fuels lead to fuel gelling and chocking of nozzle as
well as having an effect of corrosion on different parts of the engine. This can be mitigated by use of fuel additives.
Fuel additives are materials that improve the cleanliness of different parts of the engine (such as fuel injector,
intake valve, etc.), promote complete combustion of fuel, reduce fuel gelling and choking of nozzle as well as
reduce corrosion impact on different parts of the engine. This in turn leads to improved engine performance,
reduced emissions, and reduced fuel consumption. Fuel additives can also reduce particulate emissions of diesel
fuel and increase oxygen concentration. Solketal, an oxygenate fuel additive, is one of the fuel additives used to
improve engine and fuel performance. It is primarily produced from glycerol, a by-product obtained from the
production of biodiesel. It helps to reduce the soot, reduce the particulate emission, and improve the cold flow
properties of liquid.
Keywords: Solketal, catalyst, microwave heating
1 INTRODUCTION
The increasing awareness of the environmental effects
of the by-product greenhouse gases resulting from
the combustion of traditional fossil fuels coupled
with their finiteness are fueling the race for research
into the development of alternative fuels. However,
because the global energy demand is significant, and
growing by the day, advancements in establishing
suitable and sustainable substitutes have been slow,
but biomass is showing significant promise (Fatimah
et al., 2019; Ilgen, Yerlikaya, & Akyurek, 2017; Priya,
Selvakannan, Chary, Kantam, & Bhargava, 2017;
Talebian-Kiakalaieh, Amin, Najaafi, & Tarighi, 2018;
Vinicius Rossa, Gisel Chenard Díaz, Germildo Juvenal Muchave, Gomes Aranda, & Castellã Pergher,
2019). The conversion of bio-glycerol into glycerol
constituent ethers and esters, through etherification
and esterification, has received especially high interest because glycerol is a good platform for other
chemicals, and oxygenated compounds in particular,
according to a growing number of studies on the potential of value-added substances in industrial glycerol
applications. As such, it continues to show high potential in the development of fuel additives, such as cyclic
acetals and ketals with aldehydes and ketones respectively. Fuel additives are materials that help to improve
the cleanliness of different engine parts (such as the
fuel injectors and intake valves) by reducing the incidence of fuel turning to gel, and promote complete
combustion, therefore, reducing the overall corrosion
impact on engine parts. As a result, they help to
improve overall engine efficiency and, reduce emissions and fuel consumption. There is also evidence that
they also reduce particulate emissions and increase
oxygen concentration in diesel fuels, and improve
the thermal stability of jet fuels, therefore, reducing
residue deposits in jet engines significantly (Jorge
Sepúlveda et al., 2015; Mota, Silva, Nilton Rosenbach, Costa, & Silva, 2010; Talebian-Kiakalaieh et al.,
2018; Vinicius Rossa et al., 2019). This paper, therefore, aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the different
common solketal production methods and models (and
microwave heating and catalyst action in particular)
and highlight ways in which they can be improved by
reviewing studies on solketal production published in
the last 10 years.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
This is a retrospective study of the evolution of solketal
production using microwave heating and catalysis and
will use studies published within the last 10 years (from
2010–2020) to generate its information. The study will
look at the different methods and processes different
256
DOI 10.1201/9781003221968-35
Industrial Growth – Nzila et al. (Eds)
© 2022 Copyright the Author(s), ISBN: 978-1-032-11871-0
Open Access: www.taylorfrancis.com, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license
Production of solketal, a fuel additive, through microwave heating and
catalysis
Kenneth K. Shitemi
Eldoret, Kenya
Kirimi Kiriamiti
School of Engineering, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
ABSTRACT: Many efforts are being geared toward finding new sources of alternative energy to replace the
currently used non-renewable fossil fuels. Among the renewable energy resources being looked into, biofuels are
receiving intensive attention. The use of biofuels and fossil fuels lead to fuel gelling and chocking of nozzle as
well as having an effect of corrosion on different parts of the engine. This can be mitigated by use of fuel additives.
Fuel additives are materials that improve the cleanliness of different parts of the engine (such as fuel injector,
intake valve, etc.), promote complete combustion of fuel, reduce fuel gelling and choking of nozzle as well as
reduce corrosion impact on different parts of the engine. This in turn leads to improved engine performance,
reduced emissions, and reduced fuel consumption. Fuel additives can also reduce particulate emissions of diesel
fuel and increase oxygen concentration. Solketal, an oxygenate fuel additive, is one of the fuel additives used to
improve engine and fuel performance. It is primarily produced from glycerol, a by-product obtained from the
production of biodiesel. It helps to reduce the soot, reduce the particulate emission, and improve the cold flow
properties of liquid.
Keywords: Solketal, catalyst, microwave heating
1 INTRODUCTION
The increasing awareness of the environmental effects
of the by-product greenhouse gases resulting from
the combustion of traditional fossil fuels coupled
with their finiteness are fueling the race for research
into the development of alternative fuels. However,
because the global energy demand is significant, and
growing by the day, advancements in establishing
suitable and sustainable substitutes have been slow,
but biomass is showing significant promise (Fatimah
et al., 2019; Ilgen, Yerlikaya, & Akyurek, 2017; Priya,
Selvakannan, Chary, Kantam, & Bhargava, 2017;
Talebian-Kiakalaieh, Amin, Najaafi, & Tarighi, 2018;
Vinicius Rossa, Gisel Chenard Díaz, Germildo Juvenal Muchave, Gomes Aranda, & Castellã Pergher,
2019). The conversion of bio-glycerol into glycerol
constituent ethers and esters, through etherification
and esterification, has received especially high interest because glycerol is a good platform for other
chemicals, and oxygenated compounds in particular,
according to a growing number of studies on the potential of value-added substances in industrial glycerol
applications. As such, it continues to show high potential in the development of fuel additives, such as cyclic
acetals and ketals with aldehydes and ketones respectively. Fuel additives are materials that help to improve
the cleanliness of different engine parts (such as the
fuel injectors and intake valves) by reducing the incidence of fuel turning to gel, and promote complete
combustion, therefore, reducing the overall corrosion
impact on engine parts. As a result, they help to
improve overall engine efficiency and, reduce emissions and fuel consumption. There is also evidence that
they also reduce particulate emissions and increase
oxygen concentration in diesel fuels, and improve
the thermal stability of jet fuels, therefore, reducing
residue deposits in jet engines significantly (Jorge
Sepúlveda et al., 2015; Mota, Silva, Nilton Rosenbach, Costa, & Silva, 2010; Talebian-Kiakalaieh et al.,
2018; Vinicius Rossa et al., 2019). This paper, therefore, aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the different
common solketal production methods and models (and
microwave heating and catalyst action in particular)
and highlight ways in which they can be improved by
reviewing studies on solketal production published in
the last 10 years.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
This is a retrospective study of the evolution of solketal
production using microwave heating and catalysis and
will use studies published within the last 10 years (from
2010–2020) to generate its information. The study will
look at the different methods and processes different
256
DOI 10.1201/9781003221968-35