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Contents
8.3.2.3 Flux from Multiple Fields: CALPUFF Model
Performance .......................................................... 135
8.3.2.4 Flux from Multiple Fields: Applications to
Exposure Calculations ......................................... 136
8.3.2.5 Flux from Multiple Fields: Exposure
Assessment ............................................................ 136
8.4 Modeling Emissions ......................................................................... 137
8.5 Mitigation ........................................................................................... 138
8.6 Replacement ....................................................................................... 139
8.6.1 Methyl Isothiocyanate ......................................................... 139
8.6.2 Other Fumigants .................................................................. 141
References ..................................................................................................... 144
9. Trifuoroacetic Acid from CFC Replacements: An Atmospheric
Toxicant Becomes a Terrestrial Problem ................................................ 147
9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 147
9.2 TFA as an Environmental Concern ................................................ 148
9.3 Sources of TFA ................................................................................... 150
9.4 Chemistry of TFA .............................................................................. 154
9.4.1 Acidity ................................................................................... 154
9.4.2 Stability .................................................................................. 156
9.4.3 Toxicity .................................................................................. 157
9.5 Environmental Concentrations of TFA .......................................... 161
9.5.1 Oceans ................................................................................... 161
9.5.2 Hemispheric Background Concentrations ....................... 162
9.5.3 Populated Regions ............................................................... 163
9.5.4 Terminal Waterbodies ......................................................... 166
9.5.5 Point Sources of TFA ........................................................... 168
9.6 Conclusions ........................................................................................ 169
References ..................................................................................................... 169
10. Drift ............................................................................................................... 177
10.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 177
10.2 Drift to Sensitive Ecosystems: From California’s Central
Valley to the Sierra Nevada ............................................................. 180
10.3 Pesticide Drift to Nontarget Crops ................................................. 183
10.4 Dicamba Drift, an Ongoing Debate ................................................ 185
10.5 Conclusions ........................................................................................ 186
References ..................................................................................................... 187
11. Viruses, Pathogens, and Other Contaminants ..................................... 191
11.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 191
11.2 COVID-19 ........................................................................................... 191
11.2.1 Treatments for C OVID-19 ................................................... 192
11.2.2 Vaccines for C OVID-19 ........................................................ 194