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Subtle Agroecologies
complexes and observed a ‘quantum beating’ effect in which the maximum amplitude of the excitation visits and revisits different molecules in the system coherently. Fleming claims that, with
appropriate timing, the system can ‘grab’ the coherent excitation (which persists for a few 100 fs)
with greater probability than if it was merely distributed according to classical statistical mechanics. He believes this could lead to a multiplying of the speed of the energy transfer. An important feature of photosynthesis is that the molecular architecture involved is structured in a highly
unusual and compact manner, suggesting it has been ‘customised’ to exploit long-range quantum
effects (Blankenship and Engel, 2010). It could be that the particular confguration is effcient at preserving coherence for surprisingly long durations, enabling the system to ‘explore’ many pathways
simultaneously and thus speed up a ‘solution’ (i.e. delivering energy to the reaction centre). In the
light-sensitive complexes, reaction centres capture individual photons and transfer exciton energy
by tunnelling avoiding decoherence even at room temperatures, which has been invoked on numerous occasions as a serious impediment to quantum biology (Tegmark, 2000) but also defended on
various grounds (Hagan et al., 2002).
Beck and Eccles (1992) argued that the process of neurotransmitter release in the functioning
of synapses is governed by the quantum uncertainty principle and involves quantum tunnelling.
They further suggest that the introduction of quantum indeterminacy into neurotransmitter release
mechanisms would allow for human free will of action. Their notion is that a quantum process,
such as an electron tunnelling through an energy barrier, triggers exocytosis. The sheer size of the
vesicle and the large number of neurotransmitter molecules contained in it make it next to impossible to lend itself to quantum tunnelling processes. Although the Beck–Eccles model contains very
attractive ideas, the crux of the theory is incompatible with the present-day molecular biology of
vesicular neurotransmitter release (Smith, 2009). Lowenstein (2000) made a powerful argument
for the usefulness of quantum processes in receptor functions involving molecular recognition. All
sensory inputs depend on this type of activity (olfaction, vision, sound, touch), and they all involve
single molecules being triggers for amplifcation of these signals up to the neuron level and eventual
brain activation. This amplifcation mechanism of the quantum signalling connects the microscopic
and macroscopic levels which is critical to our understanding of the binding problem.
At the level of organs and tissues, it has been demonstrated that the human eye is capable of
detecting light at an extremely low threshold, perhaps as few as two to three photons at a time
(Hecht et al., 1942). Similarly, recent work by L. Turin, M. Stoneham and collaborators (Brookes
et al., 2007) has provided strong support to the claim that the sense of smell (olfaction) is based on a
quantum resonant energy transfer mechanism involving vibrational degrees of freedom of aromatic
molecules and receptors in the membranes of olfactory nerves.
Special attention must be paid to the structural hierarchical organisation of biological systems,
which in turn translates into an interlocking hierarchy of timescales. Faster timescales may inform
processes at slower timescales about rapid processes taking place at a small spatial level. Amazingly,
neural rhythms operate on timescales that vary from milliseconds to seconds, synchronise the forebrain
and are mediated by neurotransmitter systems such as acetylcholine, norepinephrine and serotonin
(Woolf et al., 2010). The neurotransmitter systems further fuctuate according to endogenous, circadian
rhythms that also fuctuate according to the season of the year, which ultimately leads to an enormous
range of timescales spanning between eight and ten orders of magnitude. Since neural events at the millisecond timescale can affect neural states at the circadian level, by extension it is entirely possible that
quantum states at the picosecond scale could affect neural activity at the millisecond scale and above.
Coupling between scales and amplifcation effects may offer a solution to some of these issues.
TOWARDS QUANTUM CONSCIOUSNESS
Does study of consciousness belong in the realm of natural sciences or is it a philosophical or even
metaphysical area of inquiry? These questions have been pondered by many scientists, philosophers
and spiritual leaders whose opinions diverge largely due to the subjective nature of consciousness.
Subtle Agroecologies
complexes and observed a ‘quantum beating’ effect in which the maximum amplitude of the excitation visits and revisits different molecules in the system coherently. Fleming claims that, with
appropriate timing, the system can ‘grab’ the coherent excitation (which persists for a few 100 fs)
with greater probability than if it was merely distributed according to classical statistical mechanics. He believes this could lead to a multiplying of the speed of the energy transfer. An important feature of photosynthesis is that the molecular architecture involved is structured in a highly
unusual and compact manner, suggesting it has been ‘customised’ to exploit long-range quantum
effects (Blankenship and Engel, 2010). It could be that the particular confguration is effcient at preserving coherence for surprisingly long durations, enabling the system to ‘explore’ many pathways
simultaneously and thus speed up a ‘solution’ (i.e. delivering energy to the reaction centre). In the
light-sensitive complexes, reaction centres capture individual photons and transfer exciton energy
by tunnelling avoiding decoherence even at room temperatures, which has been invoked on numerous occasions as a serious impediment to quantum biology (Tegmark, 2000) but also defended on
various grounds (Hagan et al., 2002).
Beck and Eccles (1992) argued that the process of neurotransmitter release in the functioning
of synapses is governed by the quantum uncertainty principle and involves quantum tunnelling.
They further suggest that the introduction of quantum indeterminacy into neurotransmitter release
mechanisms would allow for human free will of action. Their notion is that a quantum process,
such as an electron tunnelling through an energy barrier, triggers exocytosis. The sheer size of the
vesicle and the large number of neurotransmitter molecules contained in it make it next to impossible to lend itself to quantum tunnelling processes. Although the Beck–Eccles model contains very
attractive ideas, the crux of the theory is incompatible with the present-day molecular biology of
vesicular neurotransmitter release (Smith, 2009). Lowenstein (2000) made a powerful argument
for the usefulness of quantum processes in receptor functions involving molecular recognition. All
sensory inputs depend on this type of activity (olfaction, vision, sound, touch), and they all involve
single molecules being triggers for amplifcation of these signals up to the neuron level and eventual
brain activation. This amplifcation mechanism of the quantum signalling connects the microscopic
and macroscopic levels which is critical to our understanding of the binding problem.
At the level of organs and tissues, it has been demonstrated that the human eye is capable of
detecting light at an extremely low threshold, perhaps as few as two to three photons at a time
(Hecht et al., 1942). Similarly, recent work by L. Turin, M. Stoneham and collaborators (Brookes
et al., 2007) has provided strong support to the claim that the sense of smell (olfaction) is based on a
quantum resonant energy transfer mechanism involving vibrational degrees of freedom of aromatic
molecules and receptors in the membranes of olfactory nerves.
Special attention must be paid to the structural hierarchical organisation of biological systems,
which in turn translates into an interlocking hierarchy of timescales. Faster timescales may inform
processes at slower timescales about rapid processes taking place at a small spatial level. Amazingly,
neural rhythms operate on timescales that vary from milliseconds to seconds, synchronise the forebrain
and are mediated by neurotransmitter systems such as acetylcholine, norepinephrine and serotonin
(Woolf et al., 2010). The neurotransmitter systems further fuctuate according to endogenous, circadian
rhythms that also fuctuate according to the season of the year, which ultimately leads to an enormous
range of timescales spanning between eight and ten orders of magnitude. Since neural events at the millisecond timescale can affect neural states at the circadian level, by extension it is entirely possible that
quantum states at the picosecond scale could affect neural activity at the millisecond scale and above.
Coupling between scales and amplifcation effects may offer a solution to some of these issues.
TOWARDS QUANTUM CONSCIOUSNESS
Does study of consciousness belong in the realm of natural sciences or is it a philosophical or even
metaphysical area of inquiry? These questions have been pondered by many scientists, philosophers
and spiritual leaders whose opinions diverge largely due to the subjective nature of consciousness.