vii
Contents
4.6 Physical Properties of Seawater .............................................................................. 175
References and Further Reading ....................................................................................... 180
5. Atmospheric Chemistry .................................................................................................... 183
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 183
5.1.1 Composition of the Atmosphere ................................................................ 189
5.2 Nitrogen Gases .......................................................................................................... 192
5.3 Greenhouse Gases ..................................................................................................... 198
5.4 Effects of Global Change .......................................................................................... 207
5.4.1 Effects of Global Warming on the Oceans ............................................... 209
5.5 Loss of Ozone ............................................................................................................ 210
5.6 The Global Sulfur Cycle ........................................................................................... 219
5.7 Atmospheric Aerosols .............................................................................................. 221
References and Further Reading .......................................................................................225
6. Dissolved Gases Other than CO 2 .................................................................................... 227
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 227
6.2 Composition of the Atmosphere ............................................................................. 227
6.3 Dissolution of Gases in Seawater ............................................................................ 229
6.4 Air–Sea Exchange ..................................................................................................... 232
6.5 Nonreactive Gases .................................................................................................... 237
6.6 Dissolved Oxygen in Seawater................................................................................ 242
6.7 Other Nonconservative Gases ................................................................................. 252
6.8 Structural Aspects of the Solubility of Gases ....................................................... 255
References and Further Reading ....................................................................................... 257
7. The Carbonate System ....................................................................................................... 259
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 259
7.2 Acid–Base Equilibria in Seawater ........................................................................... 264
7.3 Equilibria of Carbonate Species .............................................................................. 269
7.4 Parameters of the CO 2 System in Seawater ........................................................... 274
7.5 Distribution of Carbonate Species .......................................................................... 281
7.5.1 pCO 2 ............................................................................................................... 281
7.5.2 pH ................................................................................................................... 286
7.5.3 Total Alkalinity ............................................................................................ 288
7.5.4 Total CO 2 ....................................................................................................... 291
7.6 CaCO 3 Dissolution in Seawater ............................................................................... 295
7.7 Fossil Fuel CO 2 Input to the Oceans ....................................................................... 307
7.7.1 Ocean Acidification ..................................................................................... 314
7.7.2 Effect of Ocean Acidification on the Speciation of Metals in Seawater ... 317
References and Further Reading ....................................................................................... 329
8. Micronutrients in the Oceans .......................................................................................... 335
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 335
8.2 Phosphorus in Seawater ........................................................................................... 335
8.2.1 Determination of Phosphate ......................................................................340
8.2.2 Distribution of Phosphate ...........................................................................340
8.3 Nitrogen Compounds in Seawater .........................................................................342
8.3.1 Determination of Nitrogen Compounds ..................................................343
8.3.2 Distribution of Nitrogen Compounds ......................................................345
Contents
4.6 Physical Properties of Seawater .............................................................................. 175
References and Further Reading ....................................................................................... 180
5. Atmospheric Chemistry .................................................................................................... 183
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 183
5.1.1 Composition of the Atmosphere ................................................................ 189
5.2 Nitrogen Gases .......................................................................................................... 192
5.3 Greenhouse Gases ..................................................................................................... 198
5.4 Effects of Global Change .......................................................................................... 207
5.4.1 Effects of Global Warming on the Oceans ............................................... 209
5.5 Loss of Ozone ............................................................................................................ 210
5.6 The Global Sulfur Cycle ........................................................................................... 219
5.7 Atmospheric Aerosols .............................................................................................. 221
References and Further Reading .......................................................................................225
6. Dissolved Gases Other than CO 2 .................................................................................... 227
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 227
6.2 Composition of the Atmosphere ............................................................................. 227
6.3 Dissolution of Gases in Seawater ............................................................................ 229
6.4 Air–Sea Exchange ..................................................................................................... 232
6.5 Nonreactive Gases .................................................................................................... 237
6.6 Dissolved Oxygen in Seawater................................................................................ 242
6.7 Other Nonconservative Gases ................................................................................. 252
6.8 Structural Aspects of the Solubility of Gases ....................................................... 255
References and Further Reading ....................................................................................... 257
7. The Carbonate System ....................................................................................................... 259
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 259
7.2 Acid–Base Equilibria in Seawater ........................................................................... 264
7.3 Equilibria of Carbonate Species .............................................................................. 269
7.4 Parameters of the CO 2 System in Seawater ........................................................... 274
7.5 Distribution of Carbonate Species .......................................................................... 281
7.5.1 pCO 2 ............................................................................................................... 281
7.5.2 pH ................................................................................................................... 286
7.5.3 Total Alkalinity ............................................................................................ 288
7.5.4 Total CO 2 ....................................................................................................... 291
7.6 CaCO 3 Dissolution in Seawater ............................................................................... 295
7.7 Fossil Fuel CO 2 Input to the Oceans ....................................................................... 307
7.7.1 Ocean Acidification ..................................................................................... 314
7.7.2 Effect of Ocean Acidification on the Speciation of Metals in Seawater ... 317
References and Further Reading ....................................................................................... 329
8. Micronutrients in the Oceans .......................................................................................... 335
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 335
8.2 Phosphorus in Seawater ........................................................................................... 335
8.2.1 Determination of Phosphate ......................................................................340
8.2.2 Distribution of Phosphate ...........................................................................340
8.3 Nitrogen Compounds in Seawater .........................................................................342
8.3.1 Determination of Nitrogen Compounds ..................................................343
8.3.2 Distribution of Nitrogen Compounds ......................................................345