6.2
Ocean Transport of Fresh Water
475
Susan E. Wijffels
6.2.1 The importance of freshwater transport
475
6.2.2 Indirect estimates of oceanic freshwater transport
475
6.2.3 Impacts of uncertainties on model development
476
6.2.4 Direct ocean estimates of freshwater transport
478
6.2.5 Comparison of direct and indirect flux estimates
483
6.2.6 Mechanisms of oceanic freshwater transport
486
6.2.7 Global budgets
487
6.2.8 Summary
488
6.3
Storage and Transport of Excess CO 2 in the Oceans: The JGOFS/WOCE
Global CO 2 Survey
489
Douglas W. R. Wallace
6.3.1 Introduction
489
6.3.2 Background
489
6.3.3 The JGOFS/WOCE Global CO 2 Survey
495
6.3.4 Synthesis of Global CO 2 Survey data: Review
503
6.3.5 Conclusions and outlook
520
Section 7: Insights for the Future
Section 7 plates appear between pages 588 and 589
7.1
Towards a WOCE Synthesis
525
Lynne D. Talley, Detlef Stammer and Ichiro Fukumori
7.1.1 Exploiting the WOCE data set
525
7.1.2 Data-based analyses
526
7.1.3 Model evaluation and development
535
7.1.4 Ocean state estimation
535
7.1.5 Summary and outlook
542
7.2
Numerical Ocean Circulation Modelling: Present Status and Future Directions
547
J. Willebrand and D. B. Haidvogel
7.2.1 Remarks on the history of ocean modelling
547
7.2.2 Space–time scales of ocean processes and models
548
7.2.3 Modelling issues
549
7.2.4 Atmospheric forcing and coupling
553
7.2.5 Organization of model development
554
7.2.6 Concluding remarks
556
7.3
The World during WOCE
557
Bob Dickson, Jim Hurrell, Nathan Bindoff, Annie Wong, Brian Arbic,
Breck Owens, Shiro Imawaki and Igor Yashayaev
7.3.1 Assessing the representativeness of the WOCE data set
557
7.3.2 The state of the atmosphere during WOCE
558
7.3.3 The analysis of decadal change in intermediate water masses of the World Ocean
563
7.3.4 Climatic warming of Atlantic Intermediate Waters
565
7.3.5 Spin-up of the North Atlantic gyre circulation
567
7.3.6 Altered patterns of exchange in Nordic Seas
569
7.3.7 System-wide changes in the Arctic Ocean
571
7.3.8 Interdecadal variability of Kuroshio transport
573
7.3.9 Evidence of water mass changes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans
576
7.3.10 Summary and Conclusions
580
CONTENTS
x
Ocean Transport of Fresh Water
475
Susan E. Wijffels
6.2.1 The importance of freshwater transport
475
6.2.2 Indirect estimates of oceanic freshwater transport
475
6.2.3 Impacts of uncertainties on model development
476
6.2.4 Direct ocean estimates of freshwater transport
478
6.2.5 Comparison of direct and indirect flux estimates
483
6.2.6 Mechanisms of oceanic freshwater transport
486
6.2.7 Global budgets
487
6.2.8 Summary
488
6.3
Storage and Transport of Excess CO 2 in the Oceans: The JGOFS/WOCE
Global CO 2 Survey
489
Douglas W. R. Wallace
6.3.1 Introduction
489
6.3.2 Background
489
6.3.3 The JGOFS/WOCE Global CO 2 Survey
495
6.3.4 Synthesis of Global CO 2 Survey data: Review
503
6.3.5 Conclusions and outlook
520
Section 7: Insights for the Future
Section 7 plates appear between pages 588 and 589
7.1
Towards a WOCE Synthesis
525
Lynne D. Talley, Detlef Stammer and Ichiro Fukumori
7.1.1 Exploiting the WOCE data set
525
7.1.2 Data-based analyses
526
7.1.3 Model evaluation and development
535
7.1.4 Ocean state estimation
535
7.1.5 Summary and outlook
542
7.2
Numerical Ocean Circulation Modelling: Present Status and Future Directions
547
J. Willebrand and D. B. Haidvogel
7.2.1 Remarks on the history of ocean modelling
547
7.2.2 Space–time scales of ocean processes and models
548
7.2.3 Modelling issues
549
7.2.4 Atmospheric forcing and coupling
553
7.2.5 Organization of model development
554
7.2.6 Concluding remarks
556
7.3
The World during WOCE
557
Bob Dickson, Jim Hurrell, Nathan Bindoff, Annie Wong, Brian Arbic,
Breck Owens, Shiro Imawaki and Igor Yashayaev
7.3.1 Assessing the representativeness of the WOCE data set
557
7.3.2 The state of the atmosphere during WOCE
558
7.3.3 The analysis of decadal change in intermediate water masses of the World Ocean
563
7.3.4 Climatic warming of Atlantic Intermediate Waters
565
7.3.5 Spin-up of the North Atlantic gyre circulation
567
7.3.6 Altered patterns of exchange in Nordic Seas
569
7.3.7 System-wide changes in the Arctic Ocean
571
7.3.8 Interdecadal variability of Kuroshio transport
573
7.3.9 Evidence of water mass changes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans
576
7.3.10 Summary and Conclusions
580
CONTENTS
x