observed only for aluminum, and even then only in
some locations. Many of these elements increase
gradually with depth, and some have subsurface
maxima, mid-depth maxima, or nutrient-type profiles, showing the influence of internal cycles. Some
are depleted as deep waters age, others are enriched.
To date, there is no unifying theory to explain the
distributions and the relative reactivities of hydroxide-dominated elements in the oceans. More information is needed before we are able to fully
understand the processes that control these refractory elements in sea water.
See also
Anthropogenic Trace Elements in the Ocean. Metal
Pollution.
Further Reading
Alibo DS, Nozaki Y, and Jeandel C (1999) Indium and
yttrium in North Atlantic and Mediterranean waters:
comparison to the Pacific data. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 63: 1991--1999.
Amakawa H, Alibo DS, and Nozaki Y (1996) Indium
concentration in Pacific seawater. Geophysical Research
Letters 23: 2473--2476.
Brewer PG, Spencer DW, and Robertson DE (1972) Trace
element profiles from the GEOSECS-II test station in
the Sargasso Sea. Earth and Planetary Science Letters
16: 111--116.
Bruland KW, Orians KJ, and Cowen JP (1994) Reactive
trace metals in the stratified central North Pacific.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 58: 3171--3182.
Chen JH, Edwards RL, and Wasserburg GJ (1986) 238-U,
234-U and 232-Th in seawater. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 80: 241--251.
Godfrey LV, White WM, and Salters VJM (1996)
Dissolved zirconium and hafnium distributions
across a shelf break in the northeastern Atlantic
Ocean. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 60:
3995--4006.
Hydes DJ (1983) Distribution of aluminium in waters of
the north east Atlantic 251 N to 351 N. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 47: 967--973.
Johnson KS, Gordon RM, and Coale KH (1997) What
controls dissolved iron in the world ocean? Marine
Chemistry 57: 137--161.
Lee DS, Edmond JM, and Bruland KW (1985/86) Bismuth
in the Atlantic and North Pacific: a natural analogue to
plutonium and lead? Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 76: 254--262.
Martin JH, Fitzwater SE, Gordon RM, Hunter CN, and
Tanner SJ (1993) Iron, primary production, and carbon–
nitrogen flux studies during the JGOFS North Atlantic
bloom experiment. Deep Sea Research 40: 115--134.
Martin JH, Gordon RM, Fitzwater SE, and Broenkow WW
(1989) VERTEX: phytoplankton /iron studies in the
Gulf of Alaska. Deep Sea Research 36: 649--680.
McKelvey BA (1994) The Marine Geochemistry of
Zirconium and Hafnium. PhD thesis, University of
British Columbia.
McKelvey BA and Orians KJ (1993) Dissolved zirconium
in the North Pacific Ocean. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 57: 3801--3805.
McKelvey BA and Orians KJ (1998) The determination of
dissolved zirconium and hafnium from seawater using
isotope dilution inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry. Marine Chemistry 60: 245--255.
Measures CI, Edmond JM, and Jickels TD (1986) Aluminum in the North West Atlantic. Geochimica et Cosmo
chimica Acta 50: 1423--1429.
Measures CI, Grant B, Khadem M, Lee DS, and Edmond
JM (1984) Distribution of Be, Al, Se, and Bi in the
surface waters of the western North Atlantic and
Caribbean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 71:
1--12.
Orians KJ and Bruland KW (1986) The biogeochemistry of
aluminum in the Pacific Ocean. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 78: 397--410.
Orians KJ and Bruland KW (1988a) Dissolved gallium in
the open ocean. Nature 332: 717--719.
Orians KJ and Bruland KW (1988b) The marine
geochemistry of dissolved gallium: a comparison with
dissolved aluminum. Geochimica et Cosmochimica
Acta 52: 2955--2962.
Orians KJ, Boyle EA, and Bruland KW (1990) Dissolved titanium in the open ocean. Nature 348:
322--325.
Roy-Barman M, Chen JH, and Wasserburg GJ (1996)
230Th–232Th systematics in the central Pacific Ocean:
the sources and the fates of thorium. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 139: 351--363.
Shiller AM (1998) Dissolved gallium in the Atlantic Ocean.
Marine Chemistry 61: 87--99.
Sohrin Y, Fujishima Y, Ueda K, et al. (1998) Dissolved
niobium and tantalum in the North Pacific. Geophysical
Research Letters 25: 999--1002.
Spencer DW, Robertson DE, Turekian KK, and Folsom TR
(1970) Trace element calibrations and profiles at the
GEOSECS test station in the Northeast Pacific Ocean.
Journal of Geophysical Research 75: 7688.
Taylor SR (1964) Abundance of chemical elements in the
continental crust: a new table. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 28: 1273--1285.
Whitfield M and Turner DR (1987) The role of particles in
regulating the composition of seawater. In: Stumm W
(ed.) Aquatic Surface Chemistry, Ch. 17, pp. 457–493.
New York: Wiley-Interscience.
REFRACTORY METALS 63
some locations. Many of these elements increase
gradually with depth, and some have subsurface
maxima, mid-depth maxima, or nutrient-type profiles, showing the influence of internal cycles. Some
are depleted as deep waters age, others are enriched.
To date, there is no unifying theory to explain the
distributions and the relative reactivities of hydroxide-dominated elements in the oceans. More information is needed before we are able to fully
understand the processes that control these refractory elements in sea water.
See also
Anthropogenic Trace Elements in the Ocean. Metal
Pollution.
Further Reading
Alibo DS, Nozaki Y, and Jeandel C (1999) Indium and
yttrium in North Atlantic and Mediterranean waters:
comparison to the Pacific data. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 63: 1991--1999.
Amakawa H, Alibo DS, and Nozaki Y (1996) Indium
concentration in Pacific seawater. Geophysical Research
Letters 23: 2473--2476.
Brewer PG, Spencer DW, and Robertson DE (1972) Trace
element profiles from the GEOSECS-II test station in
the Sargasso Sea. Earth and Planetary Science Letters
16: 111--116.
Bruland KW, Orians KJ, and Cowen JP (1994) Reactive
trace metals in the stratified central North Pacific.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 58: 3171--3182.
Chen JH, Edwards RL, and Wasserburg GJ (1986) 238-U,
234-U and 232-Th in seawater. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 80: 241--251.
Godfrey LV, White WM, and Salters VJM (1996)
Dissolved zirconium and hafnium distributions
across a shelf break in the northeastern Atlantic
Ocean. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 60:
3995--4006.
Hydes DJ (1983) Distribution of aluminium in waters of
the north east Atlantic 251 N to 351 N. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 47: 967--973.
Johnson KS, Gordon RM, and Coale KH (1997) What
controls dissolved iron in the world ocean? Marine
Chemistry 57: 137--161.
Lee DS, Edmond JM, and Bruland KW (1985/86) Bismuth
in the Atlantic and North Pacific: a natural analogue to
plutonium and lead? Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 76: 254--262.
Martin JH, Fitzwater SE, Gordon RM, Hunter CN, and
Tanner SJ (1993) Iron, primary production, and carbon–
nitrogen flux studies during the JGOFS North Atlantic
bloom experiment. Deep Sea Research 40: 115--134.
Martin JH, Gordon RM, Fitzwater SE, and Broenkow WW
(1989) VERTEX: phytoplankton /iron studies in the
Gulf of Alaska. Deep Sea Research 36: 649--680.
McKelvey BA (1994) The Marine Geochemistry of
Zirconium and Hafnium. PhD thesis, University of
British Columbia.
McKelvey BA and Orians KJ (1993) Dissolved zirconium
in the North Pacific Ocean. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 57: 3801--3805.
McKelvey BA and Orians KJ (1998) The determination of
dissolved zirconium and hafnium from seawater using
isotope dilution inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry. Marine Chemistry 60: 245--255.
Measures CI, Edmond JM, and Jickels TD (1986) Aluminum in the North West Atlantic. Geochimica et Cosmo
chimica Acta 50: 1423--1429.
Measures CI, Grant B, Khadem M, Lee DS, and Edmond
JM (1984) Distribution of Be, Al, Se, and Bi in the
surface waters of the western North Atlantic and
Caribbean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 71:
1--12.
Orians KJ and Bruland KW (1986) The biogeochemistry of
aluminum in the Pacific Ocean. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 78: 397--410.
Orians KJ and Bruland KW (1988a) Dissolved gallium in
the open ocean. Nature 332: 717--719.
Orians KJ and Bruland KW (1988b) The marine
geochemistry of dissolved gallium: a comparison with
dissolved aluminum. Geochimica et Cosmochimica
Acta 52: 2955--2962.
Orians KJ, Boyle EA, and Bruland KW (1990) Dissolved titanium in the open ocean. Nature 348:
322--325.
Roy-Barman M, Chen JH, and Wasserburg GJ (1996)
230Th–232Th systematics in the central Pacific Ocean:
the sources and the fates of thorium. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 139: 351--363.
Shiller AM (1998) Dissolved gallium in the Atlantic Ocean.
Marine Chemistry 61: 87--99.
Sohrin Y, Fujishima Y, Ueda K, et al. (1998) Dissolved
niobium and tantalum in the North Pacific. Geophysical
Research Letters 25: 999--1002.
Spencer DW, Robertson DE, Turekian KK, and Folsom TR
(1970) Trace element calibrations and profiles at the
GEOSECS test station in the Northeast Pacific Ocean.
Journal of Geophysical Research 75: 7688.
Taylor SR (1964) Abundance of chemical elements in the
continental crust: a new table. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 28: 1273--1285.
Whitfield M and Turner DR (1987) The role of particles in
regulating the composition of seawater. In: Stumm W
(ed.) Aquatic Surface Chemistry, Ch. 17, pp. 457–493.
New York: Wiley-Interscience.
REFRACTORY METALS 63