region is an important regional source of sulfate
aerosol because of the combustion of fossil fuels,
particularly coal. This source is predicted to grow in
strength during the early- to mid-twenty-first century
(Figure 5).
Conclusion
Land–sea exchange processes and fluxes of the
bioessential elements are critical to life. In several
cases documented above, these exchanges have been
substantially modified by human activities. These
modifications have led to a number of environmental
issues including global warming, acid deposition,
excess atmospheric nitrogen deposition, and production of photochemical smog. All these issues have
consequences for the biosphere – some well known,
others not so well known. It is likely that the developing world, with increasing population pressure
and industrial development and with no major
changes in agricultural technology and energy consumption rates, will become a more important
source of airborne gases and aerosols and materials
for river and groundwater systems in the future. This
will lead to further modification of land–sea global
transfers. The region of southern and eastern Asia is
particularly well poised to influence significantly
these global transfers.
See also
Air–Sea Transfer: Dimethyl Sulfide, COS, CS 2 , NH 4 ,
Non-Methane Hydrocarbons, Organo-Halogens.
Carbon Cycle. Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) Cycle.
Nitrogen Cycle. Ocean Carbon System, Modeling
of. Past Climate From Corals. Phosphorus Cycle.
Further Reading
Berner EA and Berner RA (1996) Global Environment:
Water, Air and Geochemical Cycles. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Galloway JN and Melillo JM (eds.) (1998) Asian Change in
the Context of Global Change. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Mackenzie FT (1998) Our Changing Planet: An Introduction to Earth System Science and Global Environmental Change. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Mackenzie FT and Lerman A (2006) Carbon in the
Geobiosphere – Earth’s Outer Shell. Dordrecht: Springer.
Meybeck M (1979) Concentrations des eaux fluviales en
elements majeurs et apports en solution aux oceans.
Revue de Geologie Dynamique et de Geographie Physique 21: 215--246.
Meybeck M (1982) Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus
transport by world rivers. American Journal of Science
282: 401--450.
Meybeck M (1983) C, N, P and S in rivers: From sources to
global inputs. In: Wollast R, Mackenzie FT, and Chou L
(eds.) Interactions of C, N, P and S Biogeochemical
Cycles and Global Change, pp. 163--193. Berlin: Springer.
Rodhe H, Langner J, Gallardo L, and Kjellstro ¨ m E (1995)
Global transport of acidifying pollutants. Water, Air
and Soil Pollution 85: 37--50.
Schlesinger WH (1997) Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of
Global Change. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Smith SV and Mackenzie FT (1987) The ocean as a net
heterotrophic system: Implications from the carbon biogeochemical cycle. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1:
187--198.
Ver LM, Mackenzie FT, and Lerman A (1999) Biogeochemical responses of the carbon cycle to natural and
human perturbations: Past, present, and future. American
Journal of Science 299: 762--801.
Vitousek PM, Aber JD, and Howarth RW (1997) Human
alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: Sources and
consequences. Ecological Applications 7(3): 737--750.
Wollast R and Mackenzie FT (1989) Global biogeochemical cycles and climate. In: Berger A, Schneider S,
and Duplessy JC (eds.) Climate and Geo-Sciences,
pp. 453--473. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
494 LAND–SEA GLOBAL TRANSFERS
aerosol because of the combustion of fossil fuels,
particularly coal. This source is predicted to grow in
strength during the early- to mid-twenty-first century
(Figure 5).
Conclusion
Land–sea exchange processes and fluxes of the
bioessential elements are critical to life. In several
cases documented above, these exchanges have been
substantially modified by human activities. These
modifications have led to a number of environmental
issues including global warming, acid deposition,
excess atmospheric nitrogen deposition, and production of photochemical smog. All these issues have
consequences for the biosphere – some well known,
others not so well known. It is likely that the developing world, with increasing population pressure
and industrial development and with no major
changes in agricultural technology and energy consumption rates, will become a more important
source of airborne gases and aerosols and materials
for river and groundwater systems in the future. This
will lead to further modification of land–sea global
transfers. The region of southern and eastern Asia is
particularly well poised to influence significantly
these global transfers.
See also
Air–Sea Transfer: Dimethyl Sulfide, COS, CS 2 , NH 4 ,
Non-Methane Hydrocarbons, Organo-Halogens.
Carbon Cycle. Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) Cycle.
Nitrogen Cycle. Ocean Carbon System, Modeling
of. Past Climate From Corals. Phosphorus Cycle.
Further Reading
Berner EA and Berner RA (1996) Global Environment:
Water, Air and Geochemical Cycles. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Galloway JN and Melillo JM (eds.) (1998) Asian Change in
the Context of Global Change. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Mackenzie FT (1998) Our Changing Planet: An Introduction to Earth System Science and Global Environmental Change. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Mackenzie FT and Lerman A (2006) Carbon in the
Geobiosphere – Earth’s Outer Shell. Dordrecht: Springer.
Meybeck M (1979) Concentrations des eaux fluviales en
elements majeurs et apports en solution aux oceans.
Revue de Geologie Dynamique et de Geographie Physique 21: 215--246.
Meybeck M (1982) Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus
transport by world rivers. American Journal of Science
282: 401--450.
Meybeck M (1983) C, N, P and S in rivers: From sources to
global inputs. In: Wollast R, Mackenzie FT, and Chou L
(eds.) Interactions of C, N, P and S Biogeochemical
Cycles and Global Change, pp. 163--193. Berlin: Springer.
Rodhe H, Langner J, Gallardo L, and Kjellstro ¨ m E (1995)
Global transport of acidifying pollutants. Water, Air
and Soil Pollution 85: 37--50.
Schlesinger WH (1997) Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of
Global Change. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Smith SV and Mackenzie FT (1987) The ocean as a net
heterotrophic system: Implications from the carbon biogeochemical cycle. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1:
187--198.
Ver LM, Mackenzie FT, and Lerman A (1999) Biogeochemical responses of the carbon cycle to natural and
human perturbations: Past, present, and future. American
Journal of Science 299: 762--801.
Vitousek PM, Aber JD, and Howarth RW (1997) Human
alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: Sources and
consequences. Ecological Applications 7(3): 737--750.
Wollast R and Mackenzie FT (1989) Global biogeochemical cycles and climate. In: Berger A, Schneider S,
and Duplessy JC (eds.) Climate and Geo-Sciences,
pp. 453--473. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
494 LAND–SEA GLOBAL TRANSFERS