252
A. NELSON-SMITH
emulsion of diesel oil (North et al., 1964) which eliminated sea-stars
of the genus Pisaster for five years and caused sufficient mortalities
amongst sea-urchins (Strongylocentrotus spp.) t o alter the entire ecology
of the area (see below). Laboratory tests showed that an 0.1% emulsion
of the oil inactivates the tube-feet of these urchins. If exposed t o the
oil for more than 1 h they do not recover. Even weathered tank sludge
reduced the success of artificial fertilizations of sea-urchins Echinus
esculentus L. and sea-stars Asterias rubens L. in experiments by Elmhirst (1922) and caused abnormalities in the resulting larvae. North
and his co-authors noted that the sea-anemone Anthopleura xanthogrammia (Brandt) was very resistant, surviving high concentrations or
direct contact with the oil in tide-pools. They recalled that it was the
only animal surviving in sea-water effluent ponds of a large oil refinery
farther up the coast. Similarly, the jelly-fish Aurelia aurita (L). is
seasonally very abundant in Swansea docks and appears undeterred
by floating slicks and oily scum. I n contrast, the hybroid Tubularia
crocea (Agassiz) suffered 20% mortality from 0.1% crude oil in
tests by Chipman and Galtsoff (1949) and all were killed within 24 h
at 5%.
Of the annelids known to tolerate polluted conditions, McCauley
(1966) recorded the survival of species of the oligochaete Tubifex in
oily river-bottom sludges. Reish (1964) utilized the polychaete Capitella
capitata (Fabricius) as an indicator of heavy pollution from oil refineries
in Los Angeles harbour and Gilet (1959) report,ed it as one of the few
animals to occur in large numbers on the bottom of the heavily oilpolluted port of Marseilles. Orton (1925) observed large numbers of
Ophryotrocha puerilis Claparitde and Mecznikow burrowing into and
feeding around a lump of weathered oil.
Lobsters Panulirus interruptus (Randall) and shore crabs Pachygrapsus crassipes Randall were also numerous amongst the " Tampico
Maru " casualties, although in chronically oil-polluted waters, the
European shore crab Carcinus maenas (L.) survives well (see, e.g.,
Naylor, 1965) and also has a high resistance t o phenol. Its 48 h median
toxicity is 56 p.p.m. according to Portmann (1968). The American
freshwater crayfish (Cambarus sp. ) is eliminated from irrigation
channels by weed-killing treatments with aromatic hydrocarbons at
about 300p.p.m. (Shaw and Timmons, 1949). McCauley (1966) observed that amphipods of the genus Gammarus disappeared from an
oil-polluted river whereas copepods (Cyclops sp.) survived. Rushton
and Jee (1923) also found that Gammarus pulex L. was badly affected,
becoming narcotized by fresh fuel-oil but also coated and trapped in
weathered residues. Orton (1925) observed that the marine copepod
A. NELSON-SMITH
emulsion of diesel oil (North et al., 1964) which eliminated sea-stars
of the genus Pisaster for five years and caused sufficient mortalities
amongst sea-urchins (Strongylocentrotus spp.) t o alter the entire ecology
of the area (see below). Laboratory tests showed that an 0.1% emulsion
of the oil inactivates the tube-feet of these urchins. If exposed t o the
oil for more than 1 h they do not recover. Even weathered tank sludge
reduced the success of artificial fertilizations of sea-urchins Echinus
esculentus L. and sea-stars Asterias rubens L. in experiments by Elmhirst (1922) and caused abnormalities in the resulting larvae. North
and his co-authors noted that the sea-anemone Anthopleura xanthogrammia (Brandt) was very resistant, surviving high concentrations or
direct contact with the oil in tide-pools. They recalled that it was the
only animal surviving in sea-water effluent ponds of a large oil refinery
farther up the coast. Similarly, the jelly-fish Aurelia aurita (L). is
seasonally very abundant in Swansea docks and appears undeterred
by floating slicks and oily scum. I n contrast, the hybroid Tubularia
crocea (Agassiz) suffered 20% mortality from 0.1% crude oil in
tests by Chipman and Galtsoff (1949) and all were killed within 24 h
at 5%.
Of the annelids known to tolerate polluted conditions, McCauley
(1966) recorded the survival of species of the oligochaete Tubifex in
oily river-bottom sludges. Reish (1964) utilized the polychaete Capitella
capitata (Fabricius) as an indicator of heavy pollution from oil refineries
in Los Angeles harbour and Gilet (1959) report,ed it as one of the few
animals to occur in large numbers on the bottom of the heavily oilpolluted port of Marseilles. Orton (1925) observed large numbers of
Ophryotrocha puerilis Claparitde and Mecznikow burrowing into and
feeding around a lump of weathered oil.
Lobsters Panulirus interruptus (Randall) and shore crabs Pachygrapsus crassipes Randall were also numerous amongst the " Tampico
Maru " casualties, although in chronically oil-polluted waters, the
European shore crab Carcinus maenas (L.) survives well (see, e.g.,
Naylor, 1965) and also has a high resistance t o phenol. Its 48 h median
toxicity is 56 p.p.m. according to Portmann (1968). The American
freshwater crayfish (Cambarus sp. ) is eliminated from irrigation
channels by weed-killing treatments with aromatic hydrocarbons at
about 300p.p.m. (Shaw and Timmons, 1949). McCauley (1966) observed that amphipods of the genus Gammarus disappeared from an
oil-polluted river whereas copepods (Cyclops sp.) survived. Rushton
and Jee (1923) also found that Gammarus pulex L. was badly affected,
becoming narcotized by fresh fuel-oil but also coated and trapped in
weathered residues. Orton (1925) observed that the marine copepod