86
JOHN E. CUSHINO
aa those of Boyd (1962, 1963), BritiJ Medical Bulletin (1959, 1963),
Coheii (1962), Cotterman (1963), Kabat (1966), Moumnt (1954),
Owen (1964), Race and Sanger (1962), Stormont (1955), Stratton and
Renton (1968), Wiener (1962) and Wiener and Wexler (1968).
Books on the general subject of immunology to which the reader
may wish to refer should include : Boyd (1966), Campbell et al. (1963),
Carpinter (1966), Cushing and Campbell (1957), Kabat and Mayer
(1961), Landsteiner (1962) and Raffel (1961).
Genetics publications that are useful for a basic understanding of
the immunogenetics of blood groups include: Li (1963), Srb and
Owen (1962), and Stern (1960).
A. The na.ure of blood groups
Blood grouping is possible because of variations among individuals
with respect to antigens present on their erythrocytes. This variation
is genetically controlled, the presence or absence of a particular
antigen being conditioned by the presence or absence of the gene
determining that antigen in the individual concerned. The metabolio
relationship between an. antigen and the gene determining it is direct
and simple in that allelic genes conditioning different antigens do not
show dominance with respect to one another, and that the phenotypic
expression of an antigen is not modified to any complicating degree
by variations inwits environment. (Exceptions to the above statement
do occur but are not significant in terms of this review). So direct
is the relation involved that it is not uncommon to observe variationa
in the reactions between antigens and their antibodies that can be
attributed to the production of a larger number of molecules of antigen
by a given gene when it is homozygous than when it is heterozygous.
The variations observed are called dosage efJects and are useful in the
interpretation of serological data.
Species that have been studied extensively, such aa man and
oattle, have been found to have several genetic loci determining b l d
grouping antigens. These loci are occupied by a series of alleles each
of which directs the synthesis of an antigenic molecule with a uniqua,
structure. Loci 50 far discovered are all genetically independent d
each other, showing random assortment during inheritance. The
series of alleles aseociated at each locus is considered as constitutin
these alleles determines the possible number of phenotypes into which
the bloods of different individuals can be classified and thus the number
of blood groups within a given system. An individual may be classified
with respect to his phenotype for each and every system known in
a blood grouping system. The possible genotypic combinations A
JOHN E. CUSHINO
aa those of Boyd (1962, 1963), BritiJ Medical Bulletin (1959, 1963),
Coheii (1962), Cotterman (1963), Kabat (1966), Moumnt (1954),
Owen (1964), Race and Sanger (1962), Stormont (1955), Stratton and
Renton (1968), Wiener (1962) and Wiener and Wexler (1968).
Books on the general subject of immunology to which the reader
may wish to refer should include : Boyd (1966), Campbell et al. (1963),
Carpinter (1966), Cushing and Campbell (1957), Kabat and Mayer
(1961), Landsteiner (1962) and Raffel (1961).
Genetics publications that are useful for a basic understanding of
the immunogenetics of blood groups include: Li (1963), Srb and
Owen (1962), and Stern (1960).
A. The na.ure of blood groups
Blood grouping is possible because of variations among individuals
with respect to antigens present on their erythrocytes. This variation
is genetically controlled, the presence or absence of a particular
antigen being conditioned by the presence or absence of the gene
determining that antigen in the individual concerned. The metabolio
relationship between an. antigen and the gene determining it is direct
and simple in that allelic genes conditioning different antigens do not
show dominance with respect to one another, and that the phenotypic
expression of an antigen is not modified to any complicating degree
by variations inwits environment. (Exceptions to the above statement
do occur but are not significant in terms of this review). So direct
is the relation involved that it is not uncommon to observe variationa
in the reactions between antigens and their antibodies that can be
attributed to the production of a larger number of molecules of antigen
by a given gene when it is homozygous than when it is heterozygous.
The variations observed are called dosage efJects and are useful in the
interpretation of serological data.
Species that have been studied extensively, such aa man and
oattle, have been found to have several genetic loci determining b l d
grouping antigens. These loci are occupied by a series of alleles each
of which directs the synthesis of an antigenic molecule with a uniqua,
structure. Loci 50 far discovered are all genetically independent d
each other, showing random assortment during inheritance. The
series of alleles aseociated at each locus is considered as constitutin
these alleles determines the possible number of phenotypes into which
the bloods of different individuals can be classified and thus the number
of blood groups within a given system. An individual may be classified
with respect to his phenotype for each and every system known in
a blood grouping system. The possible genotypic combinations A