that have occurred in Europe and North America. The continent has transformed
itself from a rural society to a complex one that has made great strides in
industrialization, urbanization and economic development. Industries such as
agriculture, mining, forestry and manufacturing, together with a growing
population, have combined to bring about some environmental problems which
were virtually non-existent at the turn of the 20th century. Since 1973 there has
been a 145% increase in Africa’s commercial energy consumption from 89.7 to
219.2 Mt of oil equivalent which has resulted in large increases in SO
emissions. The highest concentration of heavy industries are found in Zambia,
South Africa and Nigeria, with industry occurring on much smaller scales in
other African countries. The major emission sources from industry include
thermal power stations, copper smelters, ferro-alloy works, steel works, foundries,
fertilizer plants and pulp and paper mills. Although cleaner production centres
have been created in a few countries, most industries have made little effort to
adopt such approaches. In southern Africa, it has been reported that
approximately 72% of South Africa’s primary energy production is from coal
with a sulfur content of ca. 1%. This dependence on coal-based thermal power is
likely to persist into the future and hence SO
pollution will remain a problem. In
addition, the World’s richest mineral field runs through most of the southern
African countries. Smelters processing ores from these mineral deposits represent
one of the major sources of air pollution in southern Africa and future
exploitation of these deposits make this industry an emission sector of growing
concern.
Air pollution trends in Latin America. In Latin America air pollution is
perceived as a problem associated with large cities and industrial areas but it is
not yet prominent in political agendas. In the countries of Latin America and the
Caribbean, nearly three quarters of the population are urbanized, many in
megacities, with the air quality in most major cities rising to levels which pose a
threat to human health. Trends emerging from completed (Uruguay and
Argentina) and preliminary (Costa Rica, Mexico and Venezuela) inventories
suggest that more than 50% of emissions come from industrial production and
energy generation. At present, more than 50% of the energy produced in the
Central American region is generated by hydropower. However, this situation
could change if deregulation of the energy sector, such as that suggested in Brazil,
takes place. The resulting shift to fossil fuel use would result in energy-related
pollutant emissions increasing significantly in the future.
In Latin America there is another important source of air pollution originating
J. McCormick, Acid Earth — The Politics of Acid Pollution, 3rd Edition, Earthscan Publications,
London, 1997.
A. M. van Tienhoven, K. A. Olrich and T. F. Fameso, Forestry Problems in Africa, in Air Pollution
in and the Forests of Developing and Rapidly Industrialising Countries, ed. J. L. Innes and A. H.
Haron, IUFRO, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 79—99.
G. Held, B. J. Gore, A. D. Surridge, G. R. Tosen, C. R. Turner and R. D. Walmsley (eds.), Air
Pollution and its Impacts on the South African Highveld, Environmental Scientific Association,
Cleveland, 144 pp.
L. P. Rosa and R. Schaeffer, Global Warming Potentials: the case of emissions from dams, Energy
Policy, 1996, 23(2), 149—158.
J. C. I. Kuylenstierna, W. K. Hicks and M. J. Chadwick
40
itself from a rural society to a complex one that has made great strides in
industrialization, urbanization and economic development. Industries such as
agriculture, mining, forestry and manufacturing, together with a growing
population, have combined to bring about some environmental problems which
were virtually non-existent at the turn of the 20th century. Since 1973 there has
been a 145% increase in Africa’s commercial energy consumption from 89.7 to
219.2 Mt of oil equivalent which has resulted in large increases in SO
emissions. The highest concentration of heavy industries are found in Zambia,
South Africa and Nigeria, with industry occurring on much smaller scales in
other African countries. The major emission sources from industry include
thermal power stations, copper smelters, ferro-alloy works, steel works, foundries,
fertilizer plants and pulp and paper mills. Although cleaner production centres
have been created in a few countries, most industries have made little effort to
adopt such approaches. In southern Africa, it has been reported that
approximately 72% of South Africa’s primary energy production is from coal
with a sulfur content of ca. 1%. This dependence on coal-based thermal power is
likely to persist into the future and hence SO
pollution will remain a problem. In
addition, the World’s richest mineral field runs through most of the southern
African countries. Smelters processing ores from these mineral deposits represent
one of the major sources of air pollution in southern Africa and future
exploitation of these deposits make this industry an emission sector of growing
concern.
Air pollution trends in Latin America. In Latin America air pollution is
perceived as a problem associated with large cities and industrial areas but it is
not yet prominent in political agendas. In the countries of Latin America and the
Caribbean, nearly three quarters of the population are urbanized, many in
megacities, with the air quality in most major cities rising to levels which pose a
threat to human health. Trends emerging from completed (Uruguay and
Argentina) and preliminary (Costa Rica, Mexico and Venezuela) inventories
suggest that more than 50% of emissions come from industrial production and
energy generation. At present, more than 50% of the energy produced in the
Central American region is generated by hydropower. However, this situation
could change if deregulation of the energy sector, such as that suggested in Brazil,
takes place. The resulting shift to fossil fuel use would result in energy-related
pollutant emissions increasing significantly in the future.
In Latin America there is another important source of air pollution originating
J. McCormick, Acid Earth — The Politics of Acid Pollution, 3rd Edition, Earthscan Publications,
London, 1997.
A. M. van Tienhoven, K. A. Olrich and T. F. Fameso, Forestry Problems in Africa, in Air Pollution
in and the Forests of Developing and Rapidly Industrialising Countries, ed. J. L. Innes and A. H.
Haron, IUFRO, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 79—99.
G. Held, B. J. Gore, A. D. Surridge, G. R. Tosen, C. R. Turner and R. D. Walmsley (eds.), Air
Pollution and its Impacts on the South African Highveld, Environmental Scientific Association,
Cleveland, 144 pp.
L. P. Rosa and R. Schaeffer, Global Warming Potentials: the case of emissions from dams, Energy
Policy, 1996, 23(2), 149—158.
J. C. I. Kuylenstierna, W. K. Hicks and M. J. Chadwick
40