34
evaluation, trans-boundary issues, and global climate change. Only 22 countries have
government-approved marine spatial plans (Santos et al. 2019).
While some countries have specific legislation for MSP (e.g., the UK has the Marine, and
Coastal Access Act), most do not, and some countries use existing laws including environmental
legislation (like Belgium) or biodiversity legislation (like Australia) or existing land-use
planning legislation that is extended to the sea (The Netherlands, and Germany) as a basis of
authority for MSP (Ehler, 2009).
Moreover, the need for MSP is widely recognized, and it has shown promising results when
combined with other management protocols such as Integrated Coastal Zone Management
(ICZM), building upon these management approaches as well as all policies that underlie them,
for instance establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) (LME, 2020).
2. MSP in the Mediterranean
In the Mediterranean region, the UNCLOS remains the main legal basis for regulating marine
ecosystems, and the blue economy/blue growth, as it authorises the introduction of legal, and
policy tools for coastal planning, thus, facilitating the establishment of MSP in the countries that
have ratified the convention including the EU and North African countries.
The total EEZ for this basin is 3307,035 km
2 , with 16% of the area less than 100m deep, and 5%
covered by MPAs (Van Den Burg et al., 2019). However, maritime boundaries definition in the
Mediterranean is complex, mainly due to geographical, geopolitical, and economic reasons,
which requires complex agreements among neighbouring states. This results in several yet
unsolved issues even with respect to territorial sea borders. Most Mediterranean states have
established a 12-mile territorial sea, while declaration of EEZs, and “EEZ derived zones”, such
as fisheries zones, fisheries protection zones, ecological protection zones, and ecological, and
fishery protection zones, have been declared through national legislation by several states
(Ramieri et al. 2019). More than 20% of the marine waters in the Mediterranean fall under a high
seas regime governed by international norms (Cinnirella et al. 2014) which limits the
interventions of coastal states in economic, and environmental maritime affairs, and calls for
strong cooperation at the regional level.
In addition to the current human-caused pressures in the Mediterranean, according to (Piante,
and Ody 2015), almost all Mediterranean maritime sectors (tourism, shipping, aquaculture,
offshore oil, and gas…etc.), except professional fisheries (because of fish stock depletion), are
expected to grow during the next 15 years. Emerging sectors, such as renewable energy, seabed
mining, and biotechnology, are expected to grow even faster. Such growing development can
increase existing conflicts between sectors, and generate new ones, and will represent additional
pressure on already stressed Mediterranean ecosystems.
Although continuously gaining ground, MSP is a fairly new, and emerging process in the
Mediterranean region compared to land planning, but several regional policies, and legislative
instruments establishing a framework for integrated coastal management, and supporting the
implementation of MSP in the Western Mediterranean exist such as: the Mediterranean Action
evaluation, trans-boundary issues, and global climate change. Only 22 countries have
government-approved marine spatial plans (Santos et al. 2019).
While some countries have specific legislation for MSP (e.g., the UK has the Marine, and
Coastal Access Act), most do not, and some countries use existing laws including environmental
legislation (like Belgium) or biodiversity legislation (like Australia) or existing land-use
planning legislation that is extended to the sea (The Netherlands, and Germany) as a basis of
authority for MSP (Ehler, 2009).
Moreover, the need for MSP is widely recognized, and it has shown promising results when
combined with other management protocols such as Integrated Coastal Zone Management
(ICZM), building upon these management approaches as well as all policies that underlie them,
for instance establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) (LME, 2020).
2. MSP in the Mediterranean
In the Mediterranean region, the UNCLOS remains the main legal basis for regulating marine
ecosystems, and the blue economy/blue growth, as it authorises the introduction of legal, and
policy tools for coastal planning, thus, facilitating the establishment of MSP in the countries that
have ratified the convention including the EU and North African countries.
The total EEZ for this basin is 3307,035 km
2 , with 16% of the area less than 100m deep, and 5%
covered by MPAs (Van Den Burg et al., 2019). However, maritime boundaries definition in the
Mediterranean is complex, mainly due to geographical, geopolitical, and economic reasons,
which requires complex agreements among neighbouring states. This results in several yet
unsolved issues even with respect to territorial sea borders. Most Mediterranean states have
established a 12-mile territorial sea, while declaration of EEZs, and “EEZ derived zones”, such
as fisheries zones, fisheries protection zones, ecological protection zones, and ecological, and
fishery protection zones, have been declared through national legislation by several states
(Ramieri et al. 2019). More than 20% of the marine waters in the Mediterranean fall under a high
seas regime governed by international norms (Cinnirella et al. 2014) which limits the
interventions of coastal states in economic, and environmental maritime affairs, and calls for
strong cooperation at the regional level.
In addition to the current human-caused pressures in the Mediterranean, according to (Piante,
and Ody 2015), almost all Mediterranean maritime sectors (tourism, shipping, aquaculture,
offshore oil, and gas…etc.), except professional fisheries (because of fish stock depletion), are
expected to grow during the next 15 years. Emerging sectors, such as renewable energy, seabed
mining, and biotechnology, are expected to grow even faster. Such growing development can
increase existing conflicts between sectors, and generate new ones, and will represent additional
pressure on already stressed Mediterranean ecosystems.
Although continuously gaining ground, MSP is a fairly new, and emerging process in the
Mediterranean region compared to land planning, but several regional policies, and legislative
instruments establishing a framework for integrated coastal management, and supporting the
implementation of MSP in the Western Mediterranean exist such as: the Mediterranean Action