Mariculture effluents are characterized by low-density solid
waste with a wide range of particle sizes and are highly diluted
(Jiang et al. 2014).
The future of seafood production is likely to focus on marine
aquaculture, in order to provide consumers with a safe and high
quality product, impacts of high-intensity mariculture is an item
that must be considered, so in following section, some practices
for sustainable mariculture will be discussed.
Probiotics as an Alternative to Antibiotics Use
The application of immune-stimulants (probiotics, prebiotics)
in aquaculture appears promising (Muñoz-Atienza et al. 2014;
Iwashita et al. 2015; Banerjee and Ray 2017). Probiotics are
considered as viable microorganisms, when administered in
an appropriate amount, leading to health benefits to the host
(Rawling et al. 2009; Yi et al. 2019). Lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) have been widely used for research in pisciculture
(Françoise 2010; Hosseini et al. 2016; Mohammadian et al.
2019) and are also known to be present in the intestines of fish
(Balcázar et al. 2008; Nguyen et al. 2017).
The mechanisms of action of probiotics are diverse, they
act either on the competitive exclusion of pathogenic bacteria,
the production of inhibitory compounds (bactericidal),the improvement of the immune response against pathogenic microorganisms as well as antiviral effects, they even improve appetite and lead to increased growth (Nayak 2010; Franke et al.
2013; Farias et al. 2016; Xia et al. 2018). Desired results are
according to the dosage (strain alone or mixed) and the treatment duration (between 15 days and 8 months) (Carnevali
et al. 2017; Truong Thy et al. 2017). The application of
probiotics has been effective in degrading detritus and maintaining water quality in RAS systems (Kumar et al. 2010;
Dawood and Koshio 2016).
The use of probiotics is an important management tool for
sustainable mariculture especially after understanding the
competition between bacterial strains (Ibrahem 2015;
Kuebutornye et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2019).
Recirculating System Aquaculture: RAS
Mariculture is hampered by the limited availability of suitable
sites and the ecological capacity of existing sites (Henriques
et al. 2017), which has given a boost to the development of the
recirculating system aquaculture “RAS”.It are based on water
recycling (van Bussel et al. 2014), with water consumption
100 times lower than in traditional flow through systems
(Meinelt et al. 2010), water recycling could reach (< 0.1 m
3
/ kg of food) (Yogev and Gross 2019), the formulation of a
good food is the essential element for RAS (Kumar et al.
2010).
Denitrification is an important mechanism for removing nitrogen produced in aquaculture systems (Thoman et al. 2001).
In this type of system, biological filters provide denitrification
using bacteria, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter (Carballeira et al.
2012), these systems also reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with food and transport (Martins et al. 2010;
Skov 2019). But the systems are complex with high investment
and exploitation expenses (Stiller et al. 2013; Edwards 2015),
especially in terms of water quality control, they are equipped
with ozone and ultraviolet irradiation (Summerfelt et al. 2009;
Schrader et al. 2010). Removal of ammonia and solids is the
primary treatment within the recirculation loop. Total denitrification is not recommended in marine systems, as the presence
of nitrite residues inhibits sulfate reduction and DOC “dissolved
organic carbon” (Zhu et al. 2015).
As most marine RASs are located in the immediate vicinity
of the sea, the discharge of waste into the sea is still the most
common practice (Mota et al. 2014), so recycling aquaculture
systems (RAS) offers the possibility of producing at a high
efficiency, maintaining optimal environmental conditions, ensuring animal safety and welfare, while at the same time minimizing ecological impact (Ranjan et al. 2019), intensification
and water renewal process affect the economic viability of
RAS (De Ionno et al. 2006; Boxman et al. 2018).
Intensive farming development in recirculating systems relieves many of the risks associated with aquacultureenvironment interactions (Zhang et al. 2011; Dekamin et al. 2015).
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture
The adverse impacts of aquaculture activities on the environment, food security issues (the trend towards healthy and organic food) and the continued pressure on aquaculture to become a more ecological activity have combined to attract researchers and scientists to organic aquaculture (Paul and Vogl
2013; Feucht and Zander 2015).
The integration of fed and extractive species by imitation of
nature by integrating organisms of different trophic levels is
the modern form of polyculture called integrated multi-trophic
aquaculture (IMTA) (Lander et al. 2013; Largo et al. 2016;
Montalto et al. 2017),where organic matter is assimilated by
filter feeders and crustaceans, inorganic matter is extracted by
algae to produce an algal mass (Wu et al. 2015; Alexander
et al. 2016a, b; La Macchia Pedra et al. 2017).
Ray et al. (2015) have demonstrated that integrated systems
reduce eutrophication by assimilating dissolved elements,
knowing that 80% of total nutrient losses from fish farming
are available for algae as potentially eutrophic substances
(Kibria and Haque 2018; Rosa et al. 2020), in the same way,
trace metals have accumulated in algae thalls to some extent in
accordance with bioavailability standards for algae grown in
the proximity of fish farm (Ratcliff et al. 2016). The algal
Thalassas
waste with a wide range of particle sizes and are highly diluted
(Jiang et al. 2014).
The future of seafood production is likely to focus on marine
aquaculture, in order to provide consumers with a safe and high
quality product, impacts of high-intensity mariculture is an item
that must be considered, so in following section, some practices
for sustainable mariculture will be discussed.
Probiotics as an Alternative to Antibiotics Use
The application of immune-stimulants (probiotics, prebiotics)
in aquaculture appears promising (Muñoz-Atienza et al. 2014;
Iwashita et al. 2015; Banerjee and Ray 2017). Probiotics are
considered as viable microorganisms, when administered in
an appropriate amount, leading to health benefits to the host
(Rawling et al. 2009; Yi et al. 2019). Lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) have been widely used for research in pisciculture
(Françoise 2010; Hosseini et al. 2016; Mohammadian et al.
2019) and are also known to be present in the intestines of fish
(Balcázar et al. 2008; Nguyen et al. 2017).
The mechanisms of action of probiotics are diverse, they
act either on the competitive exclusion of pathogenic bacteria,
the production of inhibitory compounds (bactericidal),the improvement of the immune response against pathogenic microorganisms as well as antiviral effects, they even improve appetite and lead to increased growth (Nayak 2010; Franke et al.
2013; Farias et al. 2016; Xia et al. 2018). Desired results are
according to the dosage (strain alone or mixed) and the treatment duration (between 15 days and 8 months) (Carnevali
et al. 2017; Truong Thy et al. 2017). The application of
probiotics has been effective in degrading detritus and maintaining water quality in RAS systems (Kumar et al. 2010;
Dawood and Koshio 2016).
The use of probiotics is an important management tool for
sustainable mariculture especially after understanding the
competition between bacterial strains (Ibrahem 2015;
Kuebutornye et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2019).
Recirculating System Aquaculture: RAS
Mariculture is hampered by the limited availability of suitable
sites and the ecological capacity of existing sites (Henriques
et al. 2017), which has given a boost to the development of the
recirculating system aquaculture “RAS”.It are based on water
recycling (van Bussel et al. 2014), with water consumption
100 times lower than in traditional flow through systems
(Meinelt et al. 2010), water recycling could reach (< 0.1 m
3
/ kg of food) (Yogev and Gross 2019), the formulation of a
good food is the essential element for RAS (Kumar et al.
2010).
Denitrification is an important mechanism for removing nitrogen produced in aquaculture systems (Thoman et al. 2001).
In this type of system, biological filters provide denitrification
using bacteria, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter (Carballeira et al.
2012), these systems also reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with food and transport (Martins et al. 2010;
Skov 2019). But the systems are complex with high investment
and exploitation expenses (Stiller et al. 2013; Edwards 2015),
especially in terms of water quality control, they are equipped
with ozone and ultraviolet irradiation (Summerfelt et al. 2009;
Schrader et al. 2010). Removal of ammonia and solids is the
primary treatment within the recirculation loop. Total denitrification is not recommended in marine systems, as the presence
of nitrite residues inhibits sulfate reduction and DOC “dissolved
organic carbon” (Zhu et al. 2015).
As most marine RASs are located in the immediate vicinity
of the sea, the discharge of waste into the sea is still the most
common practice (Mota et al. 2014), so recycling aquaculture
systems (RAS) offers the possibility of producing at a high
efficiency, maintaining optimal environmental conditions, ensuring animal safety and welfare, while at the same time minimizing ecological impact (Ranjan et al. 2019), intensification
and water renewal process affect the economic viability of
RAS (De Ionno et al. 2006; Boxman et al. 2018).
Intensive farming development in recirculating systems relieves many of the risks associated with aquacultureenvironment interactions (Zhang et al. 2011; Dekamin et al. 2015).
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture
The adverse impacts of aquaculture activities on the environment, food security issues (the trend towards healthy and organic food) and the continued pressure on aquaculture to become a more ecological activity have combined to attract researchers and scientists to organic aquaculture (Paul and Vogl
2013; Feucht and Zander 2015).
The integration of fed and extractive species by imitation of
nature by integrating organisms of different trophic levels is
the modern form of polyculture called integrated multi-trophic
aquaculture (IMTA) (Lander et al. 2013; Largo et al. 2016;
Montalto et al. 2017),where organic matter is assimilated by
filter feeders and crustaceans, inorganic matter is extracted by
algae to produce an algal mass (Wu et al. 2015; Alexander
et al. 2016a, b; La Macchia Pedra et al. 2017).
Ray et al. (2015) have demonstrated that integrated systems
reduce eutrophication by assimilating dissolved elements,
knowing that 80% of total nutrient losses from fish farming
are available for algae as potentially eutrophic substances
(Kibria and Haque 2018; Rosa et al. 2020), in the same way,
trace metals have accumulated in algae thalls to some extent in
accordance with bioavailability standards for algae grown in
the proximity of fish farm (Ratcliff et al. 2016). The algal
Thalassas