476
Paul A. TYLER
been interest in the disposal of certain types of waste.
The 1980s saw great interest in the potential disposal
of high-level radioactive waste, and the 1990s saw
the publicity disaster (for those involved) of trying to
dispose of large structures such as the Brent Spar (Rice
and Owen, 1998; Rice, 2001). The late 1990s and early
21st century have seen interest in the disposal of excess
carbon dioxide as gas hydrates in the deep ocean. None
of these proposals has yet passed the ‘ideas and practicalities’ stage, although some experiments in carbon
dioxide disposal have already taken place on a small
scale (Brewer et al., 2000; Tamburri et al., 2000).
CONCLUSIONS
The deep sea provides one of the most challenging
environments on the planet. One knows that the ocean
in total is an important buffer for the world’s climate
and for the transport of heat and oxygen. However,
remarkably little is actually known about it; it is
thus imperative, before there is any further major
exploitation, that a full range of studies be mounted
of the systems and processes driving this, the largest
ecosystem on earth – potentially the most biologically
diverse, and in the opinion of the authors in this book
the most interesting!
REFERENCES
Bernhard, J.M., Buck, K.R., Farmer, M.A. and Bowser, S.S., 2000.
The Santa Barbara Basin is a symbiosis oasis. Nature, 403: 77−80.
Billett, D.S.M. (Editor), 2001. High resolution temporal and spatial
study of the benthic biology and geochemistry of a northeastern
Atlantic abyssal locality (BENGAL). Prog. Oceanogr., 50:
1−458.
Brewer, P.G., Peltzer, E.T., Friederich, G.E., Aya, I. and Yamane, K.,
2000. Experiments on the ocean sequestration of fossil CO 2 : pH
measurements and hydrate formation. Mar. Chem., 72: 83−93.
Edwards, M.H., Kurras, G.J., Tolstoy, M., Bohnenstiel, D.R., Coakley,
B.J. and Cochran, J.R., 2001. Evidence for recent volcanic activity
on the ultraslow-spreading Gakkel Ridge. Nature, 409: 808−812.
Etter, R.J., Rex, M.A., Chase, M.C. and Quattro, J.M., 1999. A
genetic dimension to deep-sea biodiversity. Deep-Sea Res., 46:
1095−1099.
Gebruk, A.V., Krylova, E.M., Lein, A.Y., Vinogradov, G.M.,
Anderson, E., Pimenov, N.V., Cherkashev, G.A. and Crane, K.,
2002. Methane seep community of the Hakon Mosby mud volcano
(the Norwegian Sea): composition and trophic structure. Sarsia, in
press.
Grassle, J.F. and Maciolek, N.J., 1992. Deep-sea species richness:
regional and local diversity estimates from quantitative bottom
samples. Am. Nat., 139: 313−341.
Hessler, R.R. and Sanders, H.L., 1967. Faunal diversity in the deep
sea. Deep-Sea Res., 14: 65−78.
Kelly, D.S., Karson, J.A., Blackman, D.K., Fuch-Green, G.L.,
Butterfield, D.A., Lilley, M.D., Olson, E.J., Schrenk, M.O.,
Roe, K.K., Lebon, G.T. and Rivizzigno, P., 2001. An off-axis
hydrothermal vent field near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 30ºN.
Nature, 412: 145−149.
Kr¨ oncke, I., Vanreusel, A., Vincx, M., Wollenberg, J., Mackensen,
A., Liebezeit, G. and Behrends, B., 2000. Different benthic sizecompartments and their relationship to sediment chemistry in the
deep Eurasian Arctic Ocean. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 199: 31−41.
Lambshead, P.J.D., 1993. Recent developments in marine benthic
biodiversity research. Oceanis, 19: 5−24.
Levin, L.A., Etter, R.J., Rex, M.A., Gooday, A.J., Smith, C.R.,
Pineda, J.P., Stuart, C.T., Hessler, R.R. and Pawson, D.L., 2001.
Environmental influences on regional deep-sea species diversity.
Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 32: 51−93.
Luther, G.W., Rozan, T.F., Taillefert, M., Nuzzio, D.B., Di Meo, C.,
Shank, T.M., Lutz, R.A. and Cary, S.C., 2001. Chemical speciation
drives hydrothermal vent ecology. Nature, 410: 813−816.
Marsh, A.G., Mullineaux, L.S., Young, C.M. and Manahan, D.T.,
2001. Larval dispersal potential of the tubeworm Riftia pachyptila
at deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Nature, 411: 77−80.
May, R.M., 1992. Bottoms up for the ocean. Nature, 357: 278−279.
Pradillon, F., Shillito, B., Young, C.M. and Gaill, F., 2001.
Developmental arrest in vent worm embryos. Nature, 413:
698−699.
Rice, A.L., 2001. Man-made objects on the seafloor 2000.
Underwater Technol., 24: 169−174.
Rice, A.L. and Owen, P., 1998. Decommissioning the Brent Spar.
E. and F.N. Spon, London.
Smith, C.R., Kukert, R.A., Wheatcroft, R.A., Jumars, P.A. and
Deming, J.W., 1989. Vent fauna on whale remains. Nature, 341:
27−28.
Tamburri, M.N., Peltzer, E.T., Friederich, G.E., Aya, I., Yamane, K.
and Brewer, P.G., 2000. A field study of the effects of CO 2 ocean
disposal on mobile deep-sea animals. Mar. Chem., 72: 95−101.
Tyler, P.A. and Young, C.M., 1998. Temperature and pressure
tolerances in dispersal stages of the genus Echinus (Echinodermata:
Echinoidea): prerequisites for deep-sea invasion and speciation?
Deep Sea Res. II, 45: 253−277.
Tyler, P.A. and Zibrowius, H., 1992. Submersible observations of the
invertebrate fauna on the continental slope southwest of Ireland
(NE Atlantic Ocean). Oceanol. Acta, 15: 211−226.
Van Dover, C.L., 2000. The Ecology of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal
Vents. Princeton University Press, NJ.
Vrijenhoek, R.C., 1997. Gene flow and genetic diversity in
naturally fragmented metapopulations of deep-sea hydrothermal
vent animals. J. Hered., 88: 285−293.
White, S.N., Chave, A.D., Reynolds, G.T., Gaidos, E.J., Tyson, J.A.
and Van Dover, C.L., 2000. Variations in ambient light emission
from black smokers and flange pools on the Juan de Fuca Ridge.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 27: 1151−1154.
Paul A. TYLER
been interest in the disposal of certain types of waste.
The 1980s saw great interest in the potential disposal
of high-level radioactive waste, and the 1990s saw
the publicity disaster (for those involved) of trying to
dispose of large structures such as the Brent Spar (Rice
and Owen, 1998; Rice, 2001). The late 1990s and early
21st century have seen interest in the disposal of excess
carbon dioxide as gas hydrates in the deep ocean. None
of these proposals has yet passed the ‘ideas and practicalities’ stage, although some experiments in carbon
dioxide disposal have already taken place on a small
scale (Brewer et al., 2000; Tamburri et al., 2000).
CONCLUSIONS
The deep sea provides one of the most challenging
environments on the planet. One knows that the ocean
in total is an important buffer for the world’s climate
and for the transport of heat and oxygen. However,
remarkably little is actually known about it; it is
thus imperative, before there is any further major
exploitation, that a full range of studies be mounted
of the systems and processes driving this, the largest
ecosystem on earth – potentially the most biologically
diverse, and in the opinion of the authors in this book
the most interesting!
REFERENCES
Bernhard, J.M., Buck, K.R., Farmer, M.A. and Bowser, S.S., 2000.
The Santa Barbara Basin is a symbiosis oasis. Nature, 403: 77−80.
Billett, D.S.M. (Editor), 2001. High resolution temporal and spatial
study of the benthic biology and geochemistry of a northeastern
Atlantic abyssal locality (BENGAL). Prog. Oceanogr., 50:
1−458.
Brewer, P.G., Peltzer, E.T., Friederich, G.E., Aya, I. and Yamane, K.,
2000. Experiments on the ocean sequestration of fossil CO 2 : pH
measurements and hydrate formation. Mar. Chem., 72: 83−93.
Edwards, M.H., Kurras, G.J., Tolstoy, M., Bohnenstiel, D.R., Coakley,
B.J. and Cochran, J.R., 2001. Evidence for recent volcanic activity
on the ultraslow-spreading Gakkel Ridge. Nature, 409: 808−812.
Etter, R.J., Rex, M.A., Chase, M.C. and Quattro, J.M., 1999. A
genetic dimension to deep-sea biodiversity. Deep-Sea Res., 46:
1095−1099.
Gebruk, A.V., Krylova, E.M., Lein, A.Y., Vinogradov, G.M.,
Anderson, E., Pimenov, N.V., Cherkashev, G.A. and Crane, K.,
2002. Methane seep community of the Hakon Mosby mud volcano
(the Norwegian Sea): composition and trophic structure. Sarsia, in
press.
Grassle, J.F. and Maciolek, N.J., 1992. Deep-sea species richness:
regional and local diversity estimates from quantitative bottom
samples. Am. Nat., 139: 313−341.
Hessler, R.R. and Sanders, H.L., 1967. Faunal diversity in the deep
sea. Deep-Sea Res., 14: 65−78.
Kelly, D.S., Karson, J.A., Blackman, D.K., Fuch-Green, G.L.,
Butterfield, D.A., Lilley, M.D., Olson, E.J., Schrenk, M.O.,
Roe, K.K., Lebon, G.T. and Rivizzigno, P., 2001. An off-axis
hydrothermal vent field near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 30ºN.
Nature, 412: 145−149.
Kr¨ oncke, I., Vanreusel, A., Vincx, M., Wollenberg, J., Mackensen,
A., Liebezeit, G. and Behrends, B., 2000. Different benthic sizecompartments and their relationship to sediment chemistry in the
deep Eurasian Arctic Ocean. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 199: 31−41.
Lambshead, P.J.D., 1993. Recent developments in marine benthic
biodiversity research. Oceanis, 19: 5−24.
Levin, L.A., Etter, R.J., Rex, M.A., Gooday, A.J., Smith, C.R.,
Pineda, J.P., Stuart, C.T., Hessler, R.R. and Pawson, D.L., 2001.
Environmental influences on regional deep-sea species diversity.
Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 32: 51−93.
Luther, G.W., Rozan, T.F., Taillefert, M., Nuzzio, D.B., Di Meo, C.,
Shank, T.M., Lutz, R.A. and Cary, S.C., 2001. Chemical speciation
drives hydrothermal vent ecology. Nature, 410: 813−816.
Marsh, A.G., Mullineaux, L.S., Young, C.M. and Manahan, D.T.,
2001. Larval dispersal potential of the tubeworm Riftia pachyptila
at deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Nature, 411: 77−80.
May, R.M., 1992. Bottoms up for the ocean. Nature, 357: 278−279.
Pradillon, F., Shillito, B., Young, C.M. and Gaill, F., 2001.
Developmental arrest in vent worm embryos. Nature, 413:
698−699.
Rice, A.L., 2001. Man-made objects on the seafloor 2000.
Underwater Technol., 24: 169−174.
Rice, A.L. and Owen, P., 1998. Decommissioning the Brent Spar.
E. and F.N. Spon, London.
Smith, C.R., Kukert, R.A., Wheatcroft, R.A., Jumars, P.A. and
Deming, J.W., 1989. Vent fauna on whale remains. Nature, 341:
27−28.
Tamburri, M.N., Peltzer, E.T., Friederich, G.E., Aya, I., Yamane, K.
and Brewer, P.G., 2000. A field study of the effects of CO 2 ocean
disposal on mobile deep-sea animals. Mar. Chem., 72: 95−101.
Tyler, P.A. and Young, C.M., 1998. Temperature and pressure
tolerances in dispersal stages of the genus Echinus (Echinodermata:
Echinoidea): prerequisites for deep-sea invasion and speciation?
Deep Sea Res. II, 45: 253−277.
Tyler, P.A. and Zibrowius, H., 1992. Submersible observations of the
invertebrate fauna on the continental slope southwest of Ireland
(NE Atlantic Ocean). Oceanol. Acta, 15: 211−226.
Van Dover, C.L., 2000. The Ecology of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal
Vents. Princeton University Press, NJ.
Vrijenhoek, R.C., 1997. Gene flow and genetic diversity in
naturally fragmented metapopulations of deep-sea hydrothermal
vent animals. J. Hered., 88: 285−293.
White, S.N., Chave, A.D., Reynolds, G.T., Gaidos, E.J., Tyson, J.A.
and Van Dover, C.L., 2000. Variations in ambient light emission
from black smokers and flange pools on the Juan de Fuca Ridge.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 27: 1151−1154.