12
M. N. Khan and F. Mohammad
lutants presenting a significant risk to or via the aquatic environment.
The regulatory and nonregulatory programs have been
developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA) to control water pollution. The Clean Water Act
defined concentrated animal feeding operations as point
sources and all other agricultural sources were considered
nonpoint sources and thus not regulated under federal law.
There is provision of Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization
Amendments of 1990 for nonpoint source management of
the USA. For water bodies that continue to be impaired despite the basic implementation of these laws and other programs, states are required to develop a total maximum daily
load (TMDL). The TMDL process is the quantitative basis
for reaching water quality standards. The USEPA is putting
a new emphasis on controlling nutrient pollution sources to
meet the goal of the Clean Water Act (Roberta 1998).
1.6 Conclusion
Eutrophication is one of the serious threats to the environment and has heavily degraded freshwater systems by reducing water quality and altering ecosystem structure and function across the globe. Population growth, industrialization,
and excessive use of fertilizers are the root cause for disproportionate amounts of nutrients stimulating overgrowth
of plants and algae. A solution to eutrophication is urgent
since nutrient accumulation renders controlling eutrophication more difficult over time. Whereas the first and most obvious step toward protection and restoration of water bodies
is to reduce the nitrogen and phosphorous load to the fresh
water systems, which can be done through changes in the
agricultural practices, for example, by restrictions in the use
of fertilizers, optimizing nutrient use to crop requirements,
planning the use of fertilizers, establishment of more sustainable agriculture farms. Moreover, reductions in atmospheric
sources of nitrogen, better cleaning of sewage and wastewater, and better control of diffuse urban nutrient sources
such as runoff from streets and storm sewers and introduction of wetlands as nutrient sinks can be mentioned as some
of the solutions to the eutrophication issues. However, these
processes alone are insufficient to produce immediate and
long-lasting effects. Therefore, the modern strategies should
include many other aspects such as phosphorus enrichment
and food web structures to understand the changes that occur
after alterations of nutrient loadings. An improved understanding of the interactive effects between grazers, nutrients,
and algal production is necessary for successful eutrophication management. Governments should implement more
effective policies to regulate the industrial and agricultural
sectors to reduce activities that contribute to eutrophication.
Finally, it can be postulated that the scientific and public
awareness and collective community efforts can play an effective role in reducing nutrient inputs to our vital water bodies.
References
Abe K, Imamaki A, Hirano M (2002) Removal of nitrate, nitrite,
ammonium and phosphate ions from water by the aerial microalga
Trentepholia aurea. J Appl Phycol 14:129–134
Addy K, Green L (1996) Phosphorus and Lake Aging. University of
Rhode Island: Natural resources facts; Report nr 96–2
An KG, Kim DS (2003) Response of reservoir water quality to nutrient inputs from streams and inlake fishfarms. Water Air Soil Poll
149:27–49
Anderson DM, Gilbert PM, Burkholder JM (2002) Harmful algal
blooms and eutrophication: nutrient sources, composition, and consequences. Estuaries 25:704–726
Bashkin VN, Park SU, Choi MS et al (2002) Nitrogen budgets for the
republic of Korea and the Yellow Sea region. Biogeochemistry (Dordrecht) 57–58:387–403
Bennett EM, Carpenter SR, Caraco NF (2001) Human impact on erodable phosphorus and eutrophication: a global perspective. BioScience 51:227–234
Berman T, Bechemen C, Maestrini SY (1999) Release of ammonium
and urea from dissolved organic nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems. Aq
Microb Ecol 16:295–302
Billen G, Garnier J, Hanset Ph (1994) Modelling phytoplankton development in whole drainage networks: the Riverstrahler model applied
to the seine river system. Hydrobiologia 289:119–137
Billen G, Garnier J, Meybeck M (1998) Les sels nutritifs: l’ouverture
des cycles. In: Meybeck M, de Marsily G, Fustec F (eds) la Seine
en son Bassin Fonctionnement écologique d’un Système Fluvial
Anthropise´. Elsevier, Paris, pp. 531–565
Boyer EW, Goodale CL, Jaworski NA et al (2002) Anthropogenic nitrogen sources and relationships to riverine nitrogen export in the northeastern U.S.A. Biogeochemistry (Dordrecht) 57–58:137–169
Boynton WR, Garber JH, Summers R et al (1995) Inputs, transformations, and transport of nitrogen and phosphorus in Chesapeake Bay
and selected tributaries. Estuaries 18:285–314
Bumb BL, Baanante CA (1996) The use of fertilizer in sustaining food
security and protecting the environment-2020. Proc. Conf. Agriculture and Fertilizer Use by 2010. pp. 35, NFDC, Islamabad
Caraco NF (1995) Influence of human populations on P transfers to
aquatic systems: a regional scale study using large rivers. In: Tiessen H (ed) Phosphorus in the global environment. SCOPE 54. Wiley,
New York, pp. 235–247
Carpenter SR (2005) Eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems: bistability
and soil phosphorus. PNAS 102:10002–10005
Carpenter SR, Christensen DL, Cole JJ et al (1995) Biological control
of eutrophication. Environ Sci Technol 29:784–786
Carpenter SR, Caraco NF, Correll DL et al (1998) Nonpoint pollution
of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol App 8:559–568
Carpenter SR, Lathrop RC (2008) Probabilistic estimate of a threshold
for eutrophication. Ecosystems 11:601–613
Cedergreen N, Madsen TV (2004) Light regulation of root and leaf
NO 3 -uptake and reduction in the floating macrophyte Lemna minor.
New Phytol 161:449–457
Coale KH, Johnson KS, Fitzwater SE et al (1996) A massive phytoplankton bloom induced by an ecosystem-scale iron fertilization
experiment in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Nature 383:495–501
Constant KM, Sheldrick WF (1992) World nitrogen survey. World bank
technical paper number 174. Washington, DC
M. N. Khan and F. Mohammad
lutants presenting a significant risk to or via the aquatic environment.
The regulatory and nonregulatory programs have been
developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA) to control water pollution. The Clean Water Act
defined concentrated animal feeding operations as point
sources and all other agricultural sources were considered
nonpoint sources and thus not regulated under federal law.
There is provision of Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization
Amendments of 1990 for nonpoint source management of
the USA. For water bodies that continue to be impaired despite the basic implementation of these laws and other programs, states are required to develop a total maximum daily
load (TMDL). The TMDL process is the quantitative basis
for reaching water quality standards. The USEPA is putting
a new emphasis on controlling nutrient pollution sources to
meet the goal of the Clean Water Act (Roberta 1998).
1.6 Conclusion
Eutrophication is one of the serious threats to the environment and has heavily degraded freshwater systems by reducing water quality and altering ecosystem structure and function across the globe. Population growth, industrialization,
and excessive use of fertilizers are the root cause for disproportionate amounts of nutrients stimulating overgrowth
of plants and algae. A solution to eutrophication is urgent
since nutrient accumulation renders controlling eutrophication more difficult over time. Whereas the first and most obvious step toward protection and restoration of water bodies
is to reduce the nitrogen and phosphorous load to the fresh
water systems, which can be done through changes in the
agricultural practices, for example, by restrictions in the use
of fertilizers, optimizing nutrient use to crop requirements,
planning the use of fertilizers, establishment of more sustainable agriculture farms. Moreover, reductions in atmospheric
sources of nitrogen, better cleaning of sewage and wastewater, and better control of diffuse urban nutrient sources
such as runoff from streets and storm sewers and introduction of wetlands as nutrient sinks can be mentioned as some
of the solutions to the eutrophication issues. However, these
processes alone are insufficient to produce immediate and
long-lasting effects. Therefore, the modern strategies should
include many other aspects such as phosphorus enrichment
and food web structures to understand the changes that occur
after alterations of nutrient loadings. An improved understanding of the interactive effects between grazers, nutrients,
and algal production is necessary for successful eutrophication management. Governments should implement more
effective policies to regulate the industrial and agricultural
sectors to reduce activities that contribute to eutrophication.
Finally, it can be postulated that the scientific and public
awareness and collective community efforts can play an effective role in reducing nutrient inputs to our vital water bodies.
References
Abe K, Imamaki A, Hirano M (2002) Removal of nitrate, nitrite,
ammonium and phosphate ions from water by the aerial microalga
Trentepholia aurea. J Appl Phycol 14:129–134
Addy K, Green L (1996) Phosphorus and Lake Aging. University of
Rhode Island: Natural resources facts; Report nr 96–2
An KG, Kim DS (2003) Response of reservoir water quality to nutrient inputs from streams and inlake fishfarms. Water Air Soil Poll
149:27–49
Anderson DM, Gilbert PM, Burkholder JM (2002) Harmful algal
blooms and eutrophication: nutrient sources, composition, and consequences. Estuaries 25:704–726
Bashkin VN, Park SU, Choi MS et al (2002) Nitrogen budgets for the
republic of Korea and the Yellow Sea region. Biogeochemistry (Dordrecht) 57–58:387–403
Bennett EM, Carpenter SR, Caraco NF (2001) Human impact on erodable phosphorus and eutrophication: a global perspective. BioScience 51:227–234
Berman T, Bechemen C, Maestrini SY (1999) Release of ammonium
and urea from dissolved organic nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems. Aq
Microb Ecol 16:295–302
Billen G, Garnier J, Hanset Ph (1994) Modelling phytoplankton development in whole drainage networks: the Riverstrahler model applied
to the seine river system. Hydrobiologia 289:119–137
Billen G, Garnier J, Meybeck M (1998) Les sels nutritifs: l’ouverture
des cycles. In: Meybeck M, de Marsily G, Fustec F (eds) la Seine
en son Bassin Fonctionnement écologique d’un Système Fluvial
Anthropise´. Elsevier, Paris, pp. 531–565
Boyer EW, Goodale CL, Jaworski NA et al (2002) Anthropogenic nitrogen sources and relationships to riverine nitrogen export in the northeastern U.S.A. Biogeochemistry (Dordrecht) 57–58:137–169
Boynton WR, Garber JH, Summers R et al (1995) Inputs, transformations, and transport of nitrogen and phosphorus in Chesapeake Bay
and selected tributaries. Estuaries 18:285–314
Bumb BL, Baanante CA (1996) The use of fertilizer in sustaining food
security and protecting the environment-2020. Proc. Conf. Agriculture and Fertilizer Use by 2010. pp. 35, NFDC, Islamabad
Caraco NF (1995) Influence of human populations on P transfers to
aquatic systems: a regional scale study using large rivers. In: Tiessen H (ed) Phosphorus in the global environment. SCOPE 54. Wiley,
New York, pp. 235–247
Carpenter SR (2005) Eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems: bistability
and soil phosphorus. PNAS 102:10002–10005
Carpenter SR, Christensen DL, Cole JJ et al (1995) Biological control
of eutrophication. Environ Sci Technol 29:784–786
Carpenter SR, Caraco NF, Correll DL et al (1998) Nonpoint pollution
of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol App 8:559–568
Carpenter SR, Lathrop RC (2008) Probabilistic estimate of a threshold
for eutrophication. Ecosystems 11:601–613
Cedergreen N, Madsen TV (2004) Light regulation of root and leaf
NO 3 -uptake and reduction in the floating macrophyte Lemna minor.
New Phytol 161:449–457
Coale KH, Johnson KS, Fitzwater SE et al (1996) A massive phytoplankton bloom induced by an ecosystem-scale iron fertilization
experiment in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Nature 383:495–501
Constant KM, Sheldrick WF (1992) World nitrogen survey. World bank
technical paper number 174. Washington, DC