can complement or improve management strategies that seek to conserve coral reef
resources (Klemas, 2001).
2.1 CORAL REEF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS AS A MANAGEMENT MODEL
Many organizations have evolved to tackle various aspects of coral reef
management. These include organizations construct data bases of coral reefs and their
resources, monitor events at regional global levels, coordinate reef research and
conservations strategies, and seek to raise public awareness of reefs. One common
strategy that has been promoted is the creation of Coral Reef Marine Protected Areas
(CRMPAs) for managing the impact of human activities on coral reefs and the services
that reefs provide. CRMPAs are seen as a key component of a much larger integrated
system that requires extensive monitoring to determine patterns and causality of
change. Results can be used to initiate and confirm management interventions.
Although CRMPAs are not all created with the same purpose in mind, each requires
relevant physical and social information for design, maintenance, and long-term
sustainability. In 2003, over 100 countries had some form of coral reef protected areas,
each motivated by a different vision and each incorporating different biophysical
elements (Gubbay, 1995; Agardy, 1997; Kelleher, 1999). These protected areas were
designed for a number of different purposes: (1) to limit human activities in
deteriorating areas; (2) to prohibit fishing in regions in which large predators spawn;
and (3) to permit selective activities that would not impact sustained levels of existing
biodiversity. There is increasing interest in monitoring CRMPASs and evaluating their
effectiveness on ecosystem health to satisfy social, commercial, planning, and
government interests.
2.2 MARINE PROTECTED AREA DEFINED
Explicit calls for MPAs were made during the 17
th International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) General Assembly in 1988, the
IV
th World Parks Congress in 1992, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in
2002 and more recently at the V
th World Parks Congress in 2003 (IUCN 2003). At each
assembly, the definition of a Marine Protected Area was drawn from the IUCN, which
describes an MPA as “…an area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its
overlying waters and associated flora and fauna, historical and cultural features, which
have been reserved by legislation or other effective means to protect part or all of the
enclosed environment” (Kelleher 1999). Although this definition provides considerable
room for interpretation, the IUCN focused the definition by establishing six categories
of protected areas, which apply to both marine and terrestrial environments and reflect
the diversity of practical uses and ecological settings that MPAs include (Table 2). In
essence, MPAs are tools through which marine areas can be managed.
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resources (Klemas, 2001).
2.1 CORAL REEF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS AS A MANAGEMENT MODEL
Many organizations have evolved to tackle various aspects of coral reef
management. These include organizations construct data bases of coral reefs and their
resources, monitor events at regional global levels, coordinate reef research and
conservations strategies, and seek to raise public awareness of reefs. One common
strategy that has been promoted is the creation of Coral Reef Marine Protected Areas
(CRMPAs) for managing the impact of human activities on coral reefs and the services
that reefs provide. CRMPAs are seen as a key component of a much larger integrated
system that requires extensive monitoring to determine patterns and causality of
change. Results can be used to initiate and confirm management interventions.
Although CRMPAs are not all created with the same purpose in mind, each requires
relevant physical and social information for design, maintenance, and long-term
sustainability. In 2003, over 100 countries had some form of coral reef protected areas,
each motivated by a different vision and each incorporating different biophysical
elements (Gubbay, 1995; Agardy, 1997; Kelleher, 1999). These protected areas were
designed for a number of different purposes: (1) to limit human activities in
deteriorating areas; (2) to prohibit fishing in regions in which large predators spawn;
and (3) to permit selective activities that would not impact sustained levels of existing
biodiversity. There is increasing interest in monitoring CRMPASs and evaluating their
effectiveness on ecosystem health to satisfy social, commercial, planning, and
government interests.
2.2 MARINE PROTECTED AREA DEFINED
Explicit calls for MPAs were made during the 17
th International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) General Assembly in 1988, the
IV
th World Parks Congress in 1992, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in
2002 and more recently at the V
th World Parks Congress in 2003 (IUCN 2003). At each
assembly, the definition of a Marine Protected Area was drawn from the IUCN, which
describes an MPA as “…an area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its
overlying waters and associated flora and fauna, historical and cultural features, which
have been reserved by legislation or other effective means to protect part or all of the
enclosed environment” (Kelleher 1999). Although this definition provides considerable
room for interpretation, the IUCN focused the definition by establishing six categories
of protected areas, which apply to both marine and terrestrial environments and reflect
the diversity of practical uses and ecological settings that MPAs include (Table 2). In
essence, MPAs are tools through which marine areas can be managed.
254
Newman, LeDrew and Lim