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Introduction
In many areas of research and conservation, remote sensing is seen as a tool for
finding appropriate habitat and to define its extent and quality in order to make predictions on species occurrence and population size (Neumann et al. 2015). When it
comes to carnivores, the opposite is often true, and remote sensing results on individual distribution, movement and activity are used to infer distribution, extent and
quality of the species’ habitat (e.g. Lande et al. 2003; Dahl et al. 2015).
Five species of large carnivore are the focus of interest in Sweden with respect to
the conservation of biological diversity, ecosystem completeness, and the traditional
herding of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) by indigenous Sámi people (Schneider
2006a). To undertake successful work with wolf (Canis lupus), brown bear (Ursus
arctos), lynx (Lynx lynx), wolverine (Gulo gulo) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) requires good knowledge of their numbers, distribution and population dynamics as well as their effects on prey species and the reindeer herding economy.
However, large carnivores are relatively few, elusive, wide ranging and secretive,
and therefore notoriously hard to observe. Catching and handling them may also be
difficult and dangerous. Collecting standardized data of sufficient quality and quantity is therefore a challenge for both research and management.
We define remote sensing as observing and measuring from a distance, where
distance can occur both in space and time. Several approaches are used to remotely
sense large carnivores in Sweden. These include non-invasive methods such as
DNA-sampling and snow tracking, partly invasive methods such as automatic cameras, and highly invasive methods such as tagging with biotelemetry sensors. In the
following sections, we describe the system that is used for the surveillance and
monitoring of the five carnivore species in Sweden. As carnivore management aims
at a population-level management of the species in Scandinavia (Linnell et al.
2008), a similar system is used in Norway.
A Compensation System for Reindeer
In the northern half of Sweden, as in the northern parts of Norway and Finland,
year-round free-ranging, semi-domestic reindeer are herded by Sámi pastoralists.
During the twentieth century, the size of the reindeer population in Sweden has been
cyclic on a 30 year basis and it has been fluctuating between ca 150,000 and 300,000
animals. In recent years, the population size has been about 250,000 animals
(Sametinget and Naturvårdsverket 2013).
All five species of large carnivore in Sweden predate on reindeer to some extent.
An estimated 19,500–72,500 reindeer are killed by large carnivores each year
(Sametinget and Naturvårdsverket 2013). Predation on reindeer by large carnivores
can have a negative effect on the livelihood of herders (Hobbs et al. 2012), and
compensation payments are made to mitigate these effects. Yearly payments from
the Swedish state to the reindeer herders averaged about 5 million Euros annually
M. Schneider and H. Dettki
Introduction
In many areas of research and conservation, remote sensing is seen as a tool for
finding appropriate habitat and to define its extent and quality in order to make predictions on species occurrence and population size (Neumann et al. 2015). When it
comes to carnivores, the opposite is often true, and remote sensing results on individual distribution, movement and activity are used to infer distribution, extent and
quality of the species’ habitat (e.g. Lande et al. 2003; Dahl et al. 2015).
Five species of large carnivore are the focus of interest in Sweden with respect to
the conservation of biological diversity, ecosystem completeness, and the traditional
herding of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) by indigenous Sámi people (Schneider
2006a). To undertake successful work with wolf (Canis lupus), brown bear (Ursus
arctos), lynx (Lynx lynx), wolverine (Gulo gulo) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) requires good knowledge of their numbers, distribution and population dynamics as well as their effects on prey species and the reindeer herding economy.
However, large carnivores are relatively few, elusive, wide ranging and secretive,
and therefore notoriously hard to observe. Catching and handling them may also be
difficult and dangerous. Collecting standardized data of sufficient quality and quantity is therefore a challenge for both research and management.
We define remote sensing as observing and measuring from a distance, where
distance can occur both in space and time. Several approaches are used to remotely
sense large carnivores in Sweden. These include non-invasive methods such as
DNA-sampling and snow tracking, partly invasive methods such as automatic cameras, and highly invasive methods such as tagging with biotelemetry sensors. In the
following sections, we describe the system that is used for the surveillance and
monitoring of the five carnivore species in Sweden. As carnivore management aims
at a population-level management of the species in Scandinavia (Linnell et al.
2008), a similar system is used in Norway.
A Compensation System for Reindeer
In the northern half of Sweden, as in the northern parts of Norway and Finland,
year-round free-ranging, semi-domestic reindeer are herded by Sámi pastoralists.
During the twentieth century, the size of the reindeer population in Sweden has been
cyclic on a 30 year basis and it has been fluctuating between ca 150,000 and 300,000
animals. In recent years, the population size has been about 250,000 animals
(Sametinget and Naturvårdsverket 2013).
All five species of large carnivore in Sweden predate on reindeer to some extent.
An estimated 19,500–72,500 reindeer are killed by large carnivores each year
(Sametinget and Naturvårdsverket 2013). Predation on reindeer by large carnivores
can have a negative effect on the livelihood of herders (Hobbs et al. 2012), and
compensation payments are made to mitigate these effects. Yearly payments from
the Swedish state to the reindeer herders averaged about 5 million Euros annually
M. Schneider and H. Dettki