risk-reduction strategies, and economic diversification to build resilience are also
prominent aspects of adaptation.
Crops and crop varieties used in organic agriculture are usually well adapted to
the local environment. Local effects of climate variability cannot be foreseen in
detail because at the local level climate change models are not very accurate or
even available. Adaptation thus may utilize measures that build on self-adaptive
capacity, such as local crop-breeding. The systemic character (on farm breeding,)
of such sustainable agricultural system is especially adequate to provide such.
Notwithstanding this potential, more research is needed on how organic farming
systems perform under increased disease and pest pressures, which are important
effects of climate change on agriculture (Liverman 2008) and on how local crop
varieties adapt to climate change and variability. Organic agriculture also seems to
perform better than conventional agriculture under water constraints (Darnhofer
et al. 2011). By its nature, organic agriculture is an adaptation strategy that can be
targeted at improving the livelihoods of rural populations and those part of societies that are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change and
variability—for example, the rural population in sub-Saharan Africa; and
improvements via reduced financial risk, reduced indebtedness, and increased
diversity (Eyhorn 2007). By its systemic character, organic agriculture is an
integrative approach to adaptation. Organic agriculture addresses many of the key
challenges identified for adaptation to climate change and variability and it fulfills
many of the criteria that are seen as important general prerequisites for such
strategies as described in (Kaswan et al. 2012). Organic agriculture as a mitigation
strategy addresses both emissions avoidance and carbon sequestration.
1.8 Functional Foods
Many biotechnological strategies have been hypothesized and used to enhance the
production of secondary metabolites in plants such as: high-yielding cell line
screening, optimization of cultivation media, biosynthesis pathways engineering,
usage of elicitors, large-scale cultivation in bioreactor system, root culture, plant
cell immobilization, and biotransformation (Peterhansel et al. 2008). Several
strategies have been followed to improve yields of secondary metabolites in plant
cell cultures. In the past years new approaches have been developed such as the
culturing of differentiated cells, i.e., shoots, roots, and hairy roots, and induction by
elicitors and metabolic engineering (Parsaeimehr et al. 2011). Cyanobacteria are an
ancient group of photosynthetic prokaryotic organisms. The secondary metabolites
produced in cyanobacteria play an important role in toxicity as iron chelators,
protease inhibitors, growth inhibitors, as well as growth promoting properties and
have been well documented (Prasanna et al. 2009; Yadav et al. 2011). Some
metabolites such as microcystins, saxitoxins, or anatoxins are of global significance
because of their toxicity while others display significant pharmaceutical potential
(Sainis et al. 2010). It has been found that the cyanotoxins, anatoxin-a,
16
L. Garcia-Mier et al.
prominent aspects of adaptation.
Crops and crop varieties used in organic agriculture are usually well adapted to
the local environment. Local effects of climate variability cannot be foreseen in
detail because at the local level climate change models are not very accurate or
even available. Adaptation thus may utilize measures that build on self-adaptive
capacity, such as local crop-breeding. The systemic character (on farm breeding,)
of such sustainable agricultural system is especially adequate to provide such.
Notwithstanding this potential, more research is needed on how organic farming
systems perform under increased disease and pest pressures, which are important
effects of climate change on agriculture (Liverman 2008) and on how local crop
varieties adapt to climate change and variability. Organic agriculture also seems to
perform better than conventional agriculture under water constraints (Darnhofer
et al. 2011). By its nature, organic agriculture is an adaptation strategy that can be
targeted at improving the livelihoods of rural populations and those part of societies that are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change and
variability—for example, the rural population in sub-Saharan Africa; and
improvements via reduced financial risk, reduced indebtedness, and increased
diversity (Eyhorn 2007). By its systemic character, organic agriculture is an
integrative approach to adaptation. Organic agriculture addresses many of the key
challenges identified for adaptation to climate change and variability and it fulfills
many of the criteria that are seen as important general prerequisites for such
strategies as described in (Kaswan et al. 2012). Organic agriculture as a mitigation
strategy addresses both emissions avoidance and carbon sequestration.
1.8 Functional Foods
Many biotechnological strategies have been hypothesized and used to enhance the
production of secondary metabolites in plants such as: high-yielding cell line
screening, optimization of cultivation media, biosynthesis pathways engineering,
usage of elicitors, large-scale cultivation in bioreactor system, root culture, plant
cell immobilization, and biotransformation (Peterhansel et al. 2008). Several
strategies have been followed to improve yields of secondary metabolites in plant
cell cultures. In the past years new approaches have been developed such as the
culturing of differentiated cells, i.e., shoots, roots, and hairy roots, and induction by
elicitors and metabolic engineering (Parsaeimehr et al. 2011). Cyanobacteria are an
ancient group of photosynthetic prokaryotic organisms. The secondary metabolites
produced in cyanobacteria play an important role in toxicity as iron chelators,
protease inhibitors, growth inhibitors, as well as growth promoting properties and
have been well documented (Prasanna et al. 2009; Yadav et al. 2011). Some
metabolites such as microcystins, saxitoxins, or anatoxins are of global significance
because of their toxicity while others display significant pharmaceutical potential
(Sainis et al. 2010). It has been found that the cyanotoxins, anatoxin-a,
16
L. Garcia-Mier et al.