individuals, while at present most of the commercial sachets produce approx. 2,500,
and even some are able to multiply and release up to 8,000 individuals, delivering
individuals into the crop during up to 8 weeks (Vila et al. 2013).
Another improvement provided by some of the major biomanufacturers is the
rearing of the main released predatory bugs in climatic rooms, such as M. pygmaeus,
N. tenuis, and O. laevigatus, using factitious foods without whole plants. This has
contributed not only to save costs and keep companies competitive despite decreases
of prices of biocontrol products but also to control more accurately the age of the
populations released in the crops, supplying fertilized young females, which helps to
guarantee an early establishment of the populations. Additional enhancements
regarding the early establishment of the predators have been achieved releasing the
natural enemies directly in the seedlings so that all plants have already eggs of the
predators when transplanted in the crop.
Similar advances have been achieved with parasitoids of aphids that are produced in climatic controlled rooms, multiplying the host aphid species in artificial
foods without plants.
More recent developments that may lead to a promising future of biological
control are the incorporation of complementary diets that increase performance of
populations, the development and use of alternative artificial diets to decrease the
actual dependence to the expensive eggs of Ephestia, and the development of
automatism processes. Despite that several successful results have been described
by academics they have not yet being incorporated in the commercial productions, to
some extent because some problems occur when scaling up to industrial processes.
However, ongoing trials show significant improvements with mixtures of foods that
decrease the levels of mortality of reared populations, and microfluidic-based
synthesis of hydrogel particles offers solutions to supply food both in the productions
and in the crops, as well as act as a nutritious reserve during storage and transportation of biological control agents. All this advances may help to develop and adopt
biocontrol programs in low-profit margins crops, like open fields. Combination of
augmentative programs, after selection and development of high quality industrial
rearing of natural enemies, with conservation biological control strategies, is a future
trend that will be decisive to get a successful transition to a productive and
sustainable agriculture, the already named evergreen revolution by some authors.
References
Aguera I, Garzón E, Justicia L, Barranco P et al (1998) Eficacia de la pulverización en cultivos de
pimiento en invernaderos tipo Almería. Bol San Veg Plagas 24:857–866
Al-Shammery KA (2011) Plant pollen as an alternative food source for rearing Euseius scutalis
(Acari: Phytoseiidae) in Hail, Saudi Arabia. J Entomol 8:365–374
Ance T, Debatty-Mestdagh M, Cambier V, Boegen C et al (2002) Hydrogel beads or capsules as
artificial media for insects oviposition and rearing of endoparasitoids. PCT/EP2002/006936.
21 June 2002
4 Biosystems Engineering Applied to Greenhouse Pest Control
123
and even some are able to multiply and release up to 8,000 individuals, delivering
individuals into the crop during up to 8 weeks (Vila et al. 2013).
Another improvement provided by some of the major biomanufacturers is the
rearing of the main released predatory bugs in climatic rooms, such as M. pygmaeus,
N. tenuis, and O. laevigatus, using factitious foods without whole plants. This has
contributed not only to save costs and keep companies competitive despite decreases
of prices of biocontrol products but also to control more accurately the age of the
populations released in the crops, supplying fertilized young females, which helps to
guarantee an early establishment of the populations. Additional enhancements
regarding the early establishment of the predators have been achieved releasing the
natural enemies directly in the seedlings so that all plants have already eggs of the
predators when transplanted in the crop.
Similar advances have been achieved with parasitoids of aphids that are produced in climatic controlled rooms, multiplying the host aphid species in artificial
foods without plants.
More recent developments that may lead to a promising future of biological
control are the incorporation of complementary diets that increase performance of
populations, the development and use of alternative artificial diets to decrease the
actual dependence to the expensive eggs of Ephestia, and the development of
automatism processes. Despite that several successful results have been described
by academics they have not yet being incorporated in the commercial productions, to
some extent because some problems occur when scaling up to industrial processes.
However, ongoing trials show significant improvements with mixtures of foods that
decrease the levels of mortality of reared populations, and microfluidic-based
synthesis of hydrogel particles offers solutions to supply food both in the productions
and in the crops, as well as act as a nutritious reserve during storage and transportation of biological control agents. All this advances may help to develop and adopt
biocontrol programs in low-profit margins crops, like open fields. Combination of
augmentative programs, after selection and development of high quality industrial
rearing of natural enemies, with conservation biological control strategies, is a future
trend that will be decisive to get a successful transition to a productive and
sustainable agriculture, the already named evergreen revolution by some authors.
References
Aguera I, Garzón E, Justicia L, Barranco P et al (1998) Eficacia de la pulverización en cultivos de
pimiento en invernaderos tipo Almería. Bol San Veg Plagas 24:857–866
Al-Shammery KA (2011) Plant pollen as an alternative food source for rearing Euseius scutalis
(Acari: Phytoseiidae) in Hail, Saudi Arabia. J Entomol 8:365–374
Ance T, Debatty-Mestdagh M, Cambier V, Boegen C et al (2002) Hydrogel beads or capsules as
artificial media for insects oviposition and rearing of endoparasitoids. PCT/EP2002/006936.
21 June 2002
4 Biosystems Engineering Applied to Greenhouse Pest Control
123