with artificial diets from the first to the fourth instar nymphs, suggesting that at least
initial stages of M. pygmaeus can be reared with this food without lose of quality.
Castañe and Zapata (2005) reported that, despite their lower body weights and
slower development, adults of M. pygmaeus reared for seven generations on an
artificial diet were as effective at killing whiteflies and two-spotted spider mites as
their peers reared on E. kuehniella eggs. Likewise, Castañe et al. (2002) found
similar predation capacity of the mirid bug Dicyphus tamaninii Wagner (Hem.:
Miridae) when feeding artificial diets, and Bonte and De Clercq (2010) found that
both fifth instar and female adults of O. laevigatus feed artificial diet or pollen has
lower weights but similar predation rates as those reared on E. kuheniella eggs.
Another possibility is the incorporation of insect components other than Ephestia
eggs in semiartificial diets. Almost all the semiartificial diets described to rear Orius
contained insect tissue or related extracts (Ferkovich and Shapiro 2005, 2007).
Automatism and time-consuming for the production of the artificial diet is
another major issue for the biomanufacturers. Portilla et al. (2011) obtained a
modified semi solid artificial diet to rear the mirid pest specie Lygus hesperus
Knight (Hem.: Miridae), which saved 20 % of previous used artificial diets and
more than 75 % of time. In addition to the components of the diet, its state (liquid,
solid, etc.) can influence the rearing success. On one hand, they can affect the
acceptance of the food by the bugs which have sucking mouth. On another hand,
they have to meet the commercial requirements in terms of acting as nutritious
reserve during storage and transportation of biological control agents. Encapsulation devices for encapsulation of dome based on using stretching Parafilm
Ò have
been used (Vandekerkhove et al. 2011) and also Microencapsulation techniques has
been developed for predatory bugs (Tan et al. 2013). Microencapsulation is an
advanced packaging technique in widespread use for packaging microbial agents
and chemical or food products in microcapsules in order to promote the quality of
artificial diets. Although it has been a limited and complicated technique based on
chemical properties, spray-drying process (Gharsallaoui et al. 2007), more recently
new alternatives microfluidic-based synthesis of hydrogel particles, based on
physical properties of liquids, have opened large possibilities (Kim et al. 2007). Tan
et al. (2013) obtained significant improvements of an optimized artificial diet for
rearing the anthocorid Orius sauteri (Poppius), an Asiatic predator, using microencapsulation. These authors showed great benefits for practical biological control
application according to the predatory ability and population dispersion obtained
with the mass reared populations using the microencapsulated artificial diets.
The described food alternatives in laboratory conditions need further research
when applied in large productions. Sometimes researchers have defined alternative
preys which are cheaper than eggs of E. kuheniella for rearing predatory bugs, but
when scaling up the methodology on commercial productions decreases of fecundity
of females and/or higher mortalities are obtained. For instance, brine shrimp cysts
(Arthemia spp.) have been described as suitable for rearing the predatory mirid
bug M. pygmaeus (Callebaut et al. 2004; Castañe et al. 2006) and the anthocorid bug
O. laevigatus (De Clercq et al. 2005). Lower fecundities of the females have been
stated by the authors when using this prey instead of E. kuheniella eggs in the
4 Biosystems Engineering Applied to Greenhouse Pest Control
121
initial stages of M. pygmaeus can be reared with this food without lose of quality.
Castañe and Zapata (2005) reported that, despite their lower body weights and
slower development, adults of M. pygmaeus reared for seven generations on an
artificial diet were as effective at killing whiteflies and two-spotted spider mites as
their peers reared on E. kuehniella eggs. Likewise, Castañe et al. (2002) found
similar predation capacity of the mirid bug Dicyphus tamaninii Wagner (Hem.:
Miridae) when feeding artificial diets, and Bonte and De Clercq (2010) found that
both fifth instar and female adults of O. laevigatus feed artificial diet or pollen has
lower weights but similar predation rates as those reared on E. kuheniella eggs.
Another possibility is the incorporation of insect components other than Ephestia
eggs in semiartificial diets. Almost all the semiartificial diets described to rear Orius
contained insect tissue or related extracts (Ferkovich and Shapiro 2005, 2007).
Automatism and time-consuming for the production of the artificial diet is
another major issue for the biomanufacturers. Portilla et al. (2011) obtained a
modified semi solid artificial diet to rear the mirid pest specie Lygus hesperus
Knight (Hem.: Miridae), which saved 20 % of previous used artificial diets and
more than 75 % of time. In addition to the components of the diet, its state (liquid,
solid, etc.) can influence the rearing success. On one hand, they can affect the
acceptance of the food by the bugs which have sucking mouth. On another hand,
they have to meet the commercial requirements in terms of acting as nutritious
reserve during storage and transportation of biological control agents. Encapsulation devices for encapsulation of dome based on using stretching Parafilm
Ò have
been used (Vandekerkhove et al. 2011) and also Microencapsulation techniques has
been developed for predatory bugs (Tan et al. 2013). Microencapsulation is an
advanced packaging technique in widespread use for packaging microbial agents
and chemical or food products in microcapsules in order to promote the quality of
artificial diets. Although it has been a limited and complicated technique based on
chemical properties, spray-drying process (Gharsallaoui et al. 2007), more recently
new alternatives microfluidic-based synthesis of hydrogel particles, based on
physical properties of liquids, have opened large possibilities (Kim et al. 2007). Tan
et al. (2013) obtained significant improvements of an optimized artificial diet for
rearing the anthocorid Orius sauteri (Poppius), an Asiatic predator, using microencapsulation. These authors showed great benefits for practical biological control
application according to the predatory ability and population dispersion obtained
with the mass reared populations using the microencapsulated artificial diets.
The described food alternatives in laboratory conditions need further research
when applied in large productions. Sometimes researchers have defined alternative
preys which are cheaper than eggs of E. kuheniella for rearing predatory bugs, but
when scaling up the methodology on commercial productions decreases of fecundity
of females and/or higher mortalities are obtained. For instance, brine shrimp cysts
(Arthemia spp.) have been described as suitable for rearing the predatory mirid
bug M. pygmaeus (Callebaut et al. 2004; Castañe et al. 2006) and the anthocorid bug
O. laevigatus (De Clercq et al. 2005). Lower fecundities of the females have been
stated by the authors when using this prey instead of E. kuheniella eggs in the
4 Biosystems Engineering Applied to Greenhouse Pest Control
121