384
M. Ahmed and V. Barale
of which is about 16 cm higher than sea level. Hence, during the period of high
discharge, there is an outflow of fresh water from the lagoon, while seawater influx
occurs only during the high tide. The marine water influence is limited to the areas
near the Boghaz E1 Maadia (Okbah and El-Gohary 2002).
Lake Burullus, located east of the Nile River Rosetta branch, is the second largest
of the coastal lagoons in northern Egypt, and covers an area of more than 400 km
2 .
It is about 54 km long and has a maximum width of 12 km. Water depth ranges
from 0.1–2.4 m. Its longer axis lies parallel to the coastline and is separated from
the Mediterranean Sea by a sand barrier. The other lagoon margins are irregular
and bordered by wetlands considered to be a site of international importance for
migratory birds. The lagoon is divided into several sub-basins by natural and artificial barriers, which includes numerous mud and/or sand islands. These are important
paleo-geographic indicators of relict deltaic features, such as beach ridges, dunes and
riverbanks of former distributaries (Ahmed et al. 2001). Several water plants, reeds
in particular, spread all over the lagoon, affecting water dynamics and exchange, but
playing an important role in the preservation of wildlife along the internal coastal
marshes. The only connection of the lagoon with the Mediterranean Sea is the Burullus opening. A large amount of freshwater (carrying mainly agriculture waste,
but relatively free from industrial waste) enters the lagoon from the south, through
several drains. This causes a rise of the water level above that of the sea, with consequent net outflow from the lagoon and dilution of incoming seawater. When the
outflow towards the sea weakens, sediments accumulate at the outlet, which must be
periodically cleared of deposits.
Lake Manzala, located east of the Nile River Damietta branch, is the largest of the
coastal lagoons in northern Egypt (although its size decreased from > 1,400 km
2 to
< 700 km
2 , in the last three decades). This shallow water body, with depth between
0.7 and 2.0 m, is about 50 km long and has a maximum width of 30 km. It accounts
for the most productive fishing grounds in Egypt, having contributed nearly 50 %
of the total country yield in the 1970s and 35 % in the 1980s, and is rich in natural
resources, ranging from wildlife refuge areas to table salt production sites. The sand
barrier that separates the lagoon from the sea suffers from erosion. As a result of
this, the coastal road between Damietta and Port Said had been replaced by a new
road farther inland connecting a number of islands inside the lagoon. The El Gamil
channel is the only opening allowing the exchange of water with the sea. Two jetties
have been constructed to protect this channel from siltation and longshore sediment
migration. The lagoon is further divided into sub-basins by natural and artificial
barriers. The western and southern sections are supplied with drainage water from
several sources, and are bordered by extensive marshes. The southeastern Ginka
sub-basin is heavily polluted by nutrients and heavy metals from agricultural runoff,
municipal sewage and industrial effluents from the Bar El Baqar drain (GEF 1992).
Lake Bardawil is located along the northern coast of Sinai, 45 km east of Port
Said and 20 km west of El-Arish. This complex lagoon system—which includes
a number of bays, about 50 islets and a few enclosed ponds with water depth of
only a few cm—has a total area of almost 600 km
2 and a maximum depth of about
3 m. It extends for about 80 km in the east-west direction, with a long narrow arm
M. Ahmed and V. Barale
of which is about 16 cm higher than sea level. Hence, during the period of high
discharge, there is an outflow of fresh water from the lagoon, while seawater influx
occurs only during the high tide. The marine water influence is limited to the areas
near the Boghaz E1 Maadia (Okbah and El-Gohary 2002).
Lake Burullus, located east of the Nile River Rosetta branch, is the second largest
of the coastal lagoons in northern Egypt, and covers an area of more than 400 km
2 .
It is about 54 km long and has a maximum width of 12 km. Water depth ranges
from 0.1–2.4 m. Its longer axis lies parallel to the coastline and is separated from
the Mediterranean Sea by a sand barrier. The other lagoon margins are irregular
and bordered by wetlands considered to be a site of international importance for
migratory birds. The lagoon is divided into several sub-basins by natural and artificial barriers, which includes numerous mud and/or sand islands. These are important
paleo-geographic indicators of relict deltaic features, such as beach ridges, dunes and
riverbanks of former distributaries (Ahmed et al. 2001). Several water plants, reeds
in particular, spread all over the lagoon, affecting water dynamics and exchange, but
playing an important role in the preservation of wildlife along the internal coastal
marshes. The only connection of the lagoon with the Mediterranean Sea is the Burullus opening. A large amount of freshwater (carrying mainly agriculture waste,
but relatively free from industrial waste) enters the lagoon from the south, through
several drains. This causes a rise of the water level above that of the sea, with consequent net outflow from the lagoon and dilution of incoming seawater. When the
outflow towards the sea weakens, sediments accumulate at the outlet, which must be
periodically cleared of deposits.
Lake Manzala, located east of the Nile River Damietta branch, is the largest of the
coastal lagoons in northern Egypt (although its size decreased from > 1,400 km
2 to
< 700 km
2 , in the last three decades). This shallow water body, with depth between
0.7 and 2.0 m, is about 50 km long and has a maximum width of 30 km. It accounts
for the most productive fishing grounds in Egypt, having contributed nearly 50 %
of the total country yield in the 1970s and 35 % in the 1980s, and is rich in natural
resources, ranging from wildlife refuge areas to table salt production sites. The sand
barrier that separates the lagoon from the sea suffers from erosion. As a result of
this, the coastal road between Damietta and Port Said had been replaced by a new
road farther inland connecting a number of islands inside the lagoon. The El Gamil
channel is the only opening allowing the exchange of water with the sea. Two jetties
have been constructed to protect this channel from siltation and longshore sediment
migration. The lagoon is further divided into sub-basins by natural and artificial
barriers. The western and southern sections are supplied with drainage water from
several sources, and are bordered by extensive marshes. The southeastern Ginka
sub-basin is heavily polluted by nutrients and heavy metals from agricultural runoff,
municipal sewage and industrial effluents from the Bar El Baqar drain (GEF 1992).
Lake Bardawil is located along the northern coast of Sinai, 45 km east of Port
Said and 20 km west of El-Arish. This complex lagoon system—which includes
a number of bays, about 50 islets and a few enclosed ponds with water depth of
only a few cm—has a total area of almost 600 km
2 and a maximum depth of about
3 m. It extends for about 80 km in the east-west direction, with a long narrow arm