7 NGO Approaches to Aquaculture
233
Wild species are also impacted when producers rely on wild stock for juveniles
rather than using hatchery juveniles. For example, juvenile wild bluefin tuna in the
Mediterranean are being caught, “fattened” in net-pen cages, and then typically
sold at a great profit to the high end Japanese market. The growth of the tuna fattening industry has placed additional pressure on Eastern Atlantic bluefin tuna
stocks, which have been declining for years and are now believed to be in danger
of collapse (Tudela and García 2004). Similarly, the European eel population has
seen a marked decrease over the last few decades, a trend that is also driven in part
by the catch of juvenile eel for farming (Dekker 2007).
In theory, aquaculture has the potential to take pressure off wild fisheries. This
is a source of hope but also frustration for many in the NGO community. A number
of conditions would need to be met in order for this to happen, several of which are
mentioned here. First, to reduce pressure on wild fisheries, aquaculture products
would need to replace wild fish in the market. Unfortunately, to date, it appears that
much aquaculture is supplementing rather than replacing wild catch in the market,
which has been demonstrated to be the case for salmon (Naylor and Burke 2005).
Secondly, society would need to produce and consume molluscs and omnivorous or
herbivorous fish preferentially over species that use more fishmeal and fish oil in
their production. Nevertheless, the farming of carnivorous marine species is one of
the fastest growing segments of the aquaculture industry. The industry is making
strides towards reducing the percentage of fishmeal and fish oil in feeds for carnivorous species and this would need to continue as well. Thirdly, aquaculture would
need to continue to move away from the use of wild juveniles in cases where wild
populations are impacted by this use.
7.2.2 Social Impacts
Over the last 15 years, the aquaculture industry has been the focus of negative press
about its social impacts, most of which focused on shrimp farming. While aquaculture can and does in many cases provide needed income and food security, there
exist a number of consistent and significant areas of social impact that result from
aquaculture production. Labor issues and concerns related to workers rights and
welfare both on farms and in processing plants have been a prime concern of some
NGOs, such as Fundación Terram in Chile, which has reported on the salmon
industry in southern Chile.
The use and conversion of habitat and resources for farms, as well as reduced
access of communities to remaining resources was one primary area of concern
relating to shrimp farming (World Bank et al. 2002). It is not uncommon for the
privatization of public commons such as mangrove areas or inland coastal waters
to lead to social conflict. The degree of conflict varies greatly, ranging from mild
animosity between farmers and coastal land-owners wishing to protect pristine
ocean views and high property values, to trespassing, theft, and even murder in
areas where the survival of poor communities is threatened by farms that restrict
access to critical natural resources.
233
Wild species are also impacted when producers rely on wild stock for juveniles
rather than using hatchery juveniles. For example, juvenile wild bluefin tuna in the
Mediterranean are being caught, “fattened” in net-pen cages, and then typically
sold at a great profit to the high end Japanese market. The growth of the tuna fattening industry has placed additional pressure on Eastern Atlantic bluefin tuna
stocks, which have been declining for years and are now believed to be in danger
of collapse (Tudela and García 2004). Similarly, the European eel population has
seen a marked decrease over the last few decades, a trend that is also driven in part
by the catch of juvenile eel for farming (Dekker 2007).
In theory, aquaculture has the potential to take pressure off wild fisheries. This
is a source of hope but also frustration for many in the NGO community. A number
of conditions would need to be met in order for this to happen, several of which are
mentioned here. First, to reduce pressure on wild fisheries, aquaculture products
would need to replace wild fish in the market. Unfortunately, to date, it appears that
much aquaculture is supplementing rather than replacing wild catch in the market,
which has been demonstrated to be the case for salmon (Naylor and Burke 2005).
Secondly, society would need to produce and consume molluscs and omnivorous or
herbivorous fish preferentially over species that use more fishmeal and fish oil in
their production. Nevertheless, the farming of carnivorous marine species is one of
the fastest growing segments of the aquaculture industry. The industry is making
strides towards reducing the percentage of fishmeal and fish oil in feeds for carnivorous species and this would need to continue as well. Thirdly, aquaculture would
need to continue to move away from the use of wild juveniles in cases where wild
populations are impacted by this use.
7.2.2 Social Impacts
Over the last 15 years, the aquaculture industry has been the focus of negative press
about its social impacts, most of which focused on shrimp farming. While aquaculture can and does in many cases provide needed income and food security, there
exist a number of consistent and significant areas of social impact that result from
aquaculture production. Labor issues and concerns related to workers rights and
welfare both on farms and in processing plants have been a prime concern of some
NGOs, such as Fundación Terram in Chile, which has reported on the salmon
industry in southern Chile.
The use and conversion of habitat and resources for farms, as well as reduced
access of communities to remaining resources was one primary area of concern
relating to shrimp farming (World Bank et al. 2002). It is not uncommon for the
privatization of public commons such as mangrove areas or inland coastal waters
to lead to social conflict. The degree of conflict varies greatly, ranging from mild
animosity between farmers and coastal land-owners wishing to protect pristine
ocean views and high property values, to trespassing, theft, and even murder in
areas where the survival of poor communities is threatened by farms that restrict
access to critical natural resources.