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E.J. Cook et al.
state and national boundaries. Examples include the escape and spread of the
macroalga Undaria pinnatifida from aquaculture facilities in Brittany, Atlantic
France (Pérez et al. 1984) across the English Channel to southern England and
along the coasts northwards to the Netherlands and southwards to Spain
(Fletcher and Manfredi 1995; Wallentinus 1999). Similarly, the expansion of the
European green crab, Carcinus maenas, along the West Coast of North America
following its initial accidental establishment in San Francisco Bay resulted in an
expansion from the state of California, to Oregon and Washington (Grosholz and
Ruiz 1995).
The Conference of Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD
1992) in Decision VII/5, identified the need for regional and international collaboration to address trans-boundary impacts of mariculture on biodiversity, such as
spread of disease and invasive alien species (paragraph 51), particularly where nonnative species are grown for mariculture purposes. Similarly, the FAO through the
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing (CCRF) (FAO 1995) and Technical
Guideline Number 5 (FAO 1997) has explicitly addressed aquaculture development
in relation to trans-boundary obligations. Article 9.1.2 of the CCRF identifies the
potential genetic impacts of introduced (alien) species through introgression and
competition with native stocks and Article 9.2.3 explicitly discusses the need for
consultation with neighbouring states when considering the introduction of alien
species into a trans-boundary system.
From an aquaculture perspective, trans-boundary effects include both the
intentional release of a species that has the ability to disperse across geo-political
boundaries and cause harm to a neighbouring coastal state, as well as, the operational or regulatory management failure to prevent or mitigate non-native species
escapes that may cause harm to a neighbouring coastal state.
5.3.7 Implications for Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity hotspots are defined as those areas where “exceptional concentrations of endemic species are experiencing exceptional loss of habitat” (Myers
et al. 2000; Orme et al. 2005). Of the top five regions identified as major global
hotspots for marine biodiversity (Roberts et al. 2002), two regions are major aquaculture producers; the Philippines and Indonesia with an annual production of
over 1.4 million tonnes. The Caribbean is ranked ninth (Roberts et al. 2002) and
this region has experienced an annual growth rate in aquaculture production of
21.3%, almost three times higher than the global production average of 8.8%
since the 1950s. Over 65% of the production in the Caribbean is due to introduced
species (FAO 2006b). Chile is identified in the top 25 terrestrial hotspots and has
experienced an annual increase in aquaculture production of 40.0% from 1980 to
2004 (FAO 2006a). From a conservation perspective, it could be argued that concerns about aquaculture effects related to non-native species need to be primarily
focused on these areas.
E.J. Cook et al.
state and national boundaries. Examples include the escape and spread of the
macroalga Undaria pinnatifida from aquaculture facilities in Brittany, Atlantic
France (Pérez et al. 1984) across the English Channel to southern England and
along the coasts northwards to the Netherlands and southwards to Spain
(Fletcher and Manfredi 1995; Wallentinus 1999). Similarly, the expansion of the
European green crab, Carcinus maenas, along the West Coast of North America
following its initial accidental establishment in San Francisco Bay resulted in an
expansion from the state of California, to Oregon and Washington (Grosholz and
Ruiz 1995).
The Conference of Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD
1992) in Decision VII/5, identified the need for regional and international collaboration to address trans-boundary impacts of mariculture on biodiversity, such as
spread of disease and invasive alien species (paragraph 51), particularly where nonnative species are grown for mariculture purposes. Similarly, the FAO through the
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing (CCRF) (FAO 1995) and Technical
Guideline Number 5 (FAO 1997) has explicitly addressed aquaculture development
in relation to trans-boundary obligations. Article 9.1.2 of the CCRF identifies the
potential genetic impacts of introduced (alien) species through introgression and
competition with native stocks and Article 9.2.3 explicitly discusses the need for
consultation with neighbouring states when considering the introduction of alien
species into a trans-boundary system.
From an aquaculture perspective, trans-boundary effects include both the
intentional release of a species that has the ability to disperse across geo-political
boundaries and cause harm to a neighbouring coastal state, as well as, the operational or regulatory management failure to prevent or mitigate non-native species
escapes that may cause harm to a neighbouring coastal state.
5.3.7 Implications for Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity hotspots are defined as those areas where “exceptional concentrations of endemic species are experiencing exceptional loss of habitat” (Myers
et al. 2000; Orme et al. 2005). Of the top five regions identified as major global
hotspots for marine biodiversity (Roberts et al. 2002), two regions are major aquaculture producers; the Philippines and Indonesia with an annual production of
over 1.4 million tonnes. The Caribbean is ranked ninth (Roberts et al. 2002) and
this region has experienced an annual growth rate in aquaculture production of
21.3%, almost three times higher than the global production average of 8.8%
since the 1950s. Over 65% of the production in the Caribbean is due to introduced
species (FAO 2006b). Chile is identified in the top 25 terrestrial hotspots and has
experienced an annual increase in aquaculture production of 40.0% from 1980 to
2004 (FAO 2006a). From a conservation perspective, it could be argued that concerns about aquaculture effects related to non-native species need to be primarily
focused on these areas.