388
M.W. Russell et al.
the landings refl ect active line fi shing effort during this latter period, although fi sh
numbers have not recovered to former levels (Luckhurst 1996, 1998 ; Luckhurst
and Trott 2009 ) .
In the British Virgin Islands, seasonal closures for the red hind have been ineffective due to lack of enforcement (Eristhee et al. 2006 , Table 11.1) . However, in the
adjacent US Virgin Islands, red hind fi sh sizes and numbers dramatically increased
in a closed area. This was due to adequate enforcement and the establishment of a
comprehensive monitoring programme that enabled the Caribbean Fishery
Management Council to better justify regulatory actions based on sound research
information that demonstrated positive outcomes (Nemeth 2005 ) .
In Belize, 11 Nassau grouper aggregation sites were declared as marine reserves
permanently closed to fi shing, while two other sites, now closed, initially had limited
access by fi shers under permit (Gibson et al. 2007 , Janet Gibson personal communication 2010). As most of these sites are multi-species aggregation sites (Sala et al.
2001 ) , the creation of reserves to protect Nassau grouper resulted in the protection of
other species as well (Heyman and Kjerfve 2008 ) . However, despite high expectations for the recovery of Nassau grouper at these sites, fi sh numbers continued to
decline, likely due to illegal fi shing at several sites (Gibson et al. 2007 ) . Due to ongoing concern for the Nassau grouper, additional management measures including a
minimum size limit were implemented at the national level in 2009 and have high
local acceptance (Janet Gibson personal communication 2010). The progress made
in Belize is largely due to a highly motivated working group that includes fi shing
groups, representatives from NGOs, government and the tertiary educational sector.
In the Indo-Pacifi c, of the few aggregations that are managed, the most common
management tool is seasonal site protection, usually combined with a sales ban.
A small number of sites are in MPAs. Although aggregation status in most of the
region is unknown, where information is available over 30% of aggregations are
decreasing, including in Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea (SCRFA
database, www.SCRFA.org ). In a relatively early management initiative in 1980,
Pohnpei, Micronesia, introduced a sales ban from March to April each year for
camoufl age grouper. This proved to be largely ineffective most likely due to a lack
of enforcement in the market (Rhodes and Sadovy 2002 ; Rhodes and Tupper 2007 ) .
In Palau, protection of grouper aggregations accompanied by a sales ban is likely to
be a major reason that some aggregations still occur. Unfortunately, not all aggregating months are included in the sales ban, putting these aggregations at risk, and
poaching, a major problem generally, continues (Sadovy 2007 ) .
Notwithstanding the historic trend in delayed and reactive management, from the
few examples above, illegal fi shing and lack of enforcement are major problems. The
potential for illegal fi shing in any management decision needs to be identifi ed. There
is little advantage to implementing fi sh size limits or prohibiting the take of certain
species if enforcement capacity is inadequate. Effective compliance with area closures
depends on several factors including proximity of the closure to the coast, the size of
the area, clarity in the boundaries of the protected areas, community acceptance of
management measures and enforcement capacity. Disputes can easily arise between
fi shers and enforcers as to exactly where a protected area is located, particularly if the
M.W. Russell et al.
the landings refl ect active line fi shing effort during this latter period, although fi sh
numbers have not recovered to former levels (Luckhurst 1996, 1998 ; Luckhurst
and Trott 2009 ) .
In the British Virgin Islands, seasonal closures for the red hind have been ineffective due to lack of enforcement (Eristhee et al. 2006 , Table 11.1) . However, in the
adjacent US Virgin Islands, red hind fi sh sizes and numbers dramatically increased
in a closed area. This was due to adequate enforcement and the establishment of a
comprehensive monitoring programme that enabled the Caribbean Fishery
Management Council to better justify regulatory actions based on sound research
information that demonstrated positive outcomes (Nemeth 2005 ) .
In Belize, 11 Nassau grouper aggregation sites were declared as marine reserves
permanently closed to fi shing, while two other sites, now closed, initially had limited
access by fi shers under permit (Gibson et al. 2007 , Janet Gibson personal communication 2010). As most of these sites are multi-species aggregation sites (Sala et al.
2001 ) , the creation of reserves to protect Nassau grouper resulted in the protection of
other species as well (Heyman and Kjerfve 2008 ) . However, despite high expectations for the recovery of Nassau grouper at these sites, fi sh numbers continued to
decline, likely due to illegal fi shing at several sites (Gibson et al. 2007 ) . Due to ongoing concern for the Nassau grouper, additional management measures including a
minimum size limit were implemented at the national level in 2009 and have high
local acceptance (Janet Gibson personal communication 2010). The progress made
in Belize is largely due to a highly motivated working group that includes fi shing
groups, representatives from NGOs, government and the tertiary educational sector.
In the Indo-Pacifi c, of the few aggregations that are managed, the most common
management tool is seasonal site protection, usually combined with a sales ban.
A small number of sites are in MPAs. Although aggregation status in most of the
region is unknown, where information is available over 30% of aggregations are
decreasing, including in Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea (SCRFA
database, www.SCRFA.org ). In a relatively early management initiative in 1980,
Pohnpei, Micronesia, introduced a sales ban from March to April each year for
camoufl age grouper. This proved to be largely ineffective most likely due to a lack
of enforcement in the market (Rhodes and Sadovy 2002 ; Rhodes and Tupper 2007 ) .
In Palau, protection of grouper aggregations accompanied by a sales ban is likely to
be a major reason that some aggregations still occur. Unfortunately, not all aggregating months are included in the sales ban, putting these aggregations at risk, and
poaching, a major problem generally, continues (Sadovy 2007 ) .
Notwithstanding the historic trend in delayed and reactive management, from the
few examples above, illegal fi shing and lack of enforcement are major problems. The
potential for illegal fi shing in any management decision needs to be identifi ed. There
is little advantage to implementing fi sh size limits or prohibiting the take of certain
species if enforcement capacity is inadequate. Effective compliance with area closures
depends on several factors including proximity of the closure to the coast, the size of
the area, clarity in the boundaries of the protected areas, community acceptance of
management measures and enforcement capacity. Disputes can easily arise between
fi shers and enforcers as to exactly where a protected area is located, particularly if the