378
M.W. Russell et al.
misuse by fi shers if specifi cally identifi ed. It is also particularly important in the
case of vulnerable or threatened species. Controls to restrict the amount of fi sh
being exported from a country may be particularly effective if there is particular
concern for a species, if there are few export points to monitor, or few export companies involved. For the live reef fi sh food trade, placing the export control point at
the main airports is more feasible in some countries than placing a quota on individual fi shers because of the large number of fi shing communities involved, and the
inability to ensure accurate records of catches. For example, the international trade
of humphead wrasse ( Cheilinus undulatus ) has been restricted through being listed
on CITES Appendix II since 2004. This species is extensively caught throughout
Indonesia, and after determining an export quota, Indonesia has specifi ed air-only
exports (i.e. none permitted by sea) to enable better export control (Sadovy de
Mitcheson et al. 2010 , Chap. 12.13 ). See also Section 8.7 and Table 8.2 .
11.3.1 Temporal and Spatial Protection
Short-term site closures, sometimes linked to controls on sales, can be used to close
an area for a specifi c time to avoid disturbing aggregated fi sh. Seasonal closures
may be species-specifi c or cover a range of species. For example, on the Great
Barrier Reef seasonal closures to fi shing for all reef fi shes occur each year during a
few days around the October and November new moons, although the timing of the
closures was primarily designed to manage aggregations of the most highly valued
species in the assemblage, the leopard coralgrouper (Russell 2006, 2009 , Chap.
12.9 ). Seasonal sales bans prohibit or control commercial trade during a specifi ed
period in relation to the spawning season. A sales ban attempts to control movement
of a species at the market end of the supply chain, and may be relatively easier to
enforce than at-sea patrols, because fi sh markets and restaurants can be monitored
more readily and cost-effectively. Evidence of possession is usually unequivocal; a
fi sher or wholesaler either has or does not have the species of concern.
Seasonal closures of an aggregation site as a sole management measure can be
implemented for the duration of the spawning season of the managed species, but
this does not prevent fi shing for the species outside the spawning aggregation area.
This option relies on having information on both spawning season timing and
spawning locations as well as some idea of the status of the population generally.
Temporal protection does not require all spawning sites to be known. For example,
spawning season closures on the Great Barrier Reef were determined without
knowledge of where all aggregations occur, but with information on spawning timing of key species (Russell 2006, 2009 ) . In the Bahamas during the 2008–2009
spawning season, one aggregation site for Nassau grouper (High Point) was closed
to fi shing during the spawning season (December to February), while possession
and sale of Nassau grouper during this period was not permitted throughout
the country. This measure refl ects the fact that not all aggregation locations in the
country are well-described ( www.bahamas.gov.bs ). Seasonal closures have been
M.W. Russell et al.
misuse by fi shers if specifi cally identifi ed. It is also particularly important in the
case of vulnerable or threatened species. Controls to restrict the amount of fi sh
being exported from a country may be particularly effective if there is particular
concern for a species, if there are few export points to monitor, or few export companies involved. For the live reef fi sh food trade, placing the export control point at
the main airports is more feasible in some countries than placing a quota on individual fi shers because of the large number of fi shing communities involved, and the
inability to ensure accurate records of catches. For example, the international trade
of humphead wrasse ( Cheilinus undulatus ) has been restricted through being listed
on CITES Appendix II since 2004. This species is extensively caught throughout
Indonesia, and after determining an export quota, Indonesia has specifi ed air-only
exports (i.e. none permitted by sea) to enable better export control (Sadovy de
Mitcheson et al. 2010 , Chap. 12.13 ). See also Section 8.7 and Table 8.2 .
11.3.1 Temporal and Spatial Protection
Short-term site closures, sometimes linked to controls on sales, can be used to close
an area for a specifi c time to avoid disturbing aggregated fi sh. Seasonal closures
may be species-specifi c or cover a range of species. For example, on the Great
Barrier Reef seasonal closures to fi shing for all reef fi shes occur each year during a
few days around the October and November new moons, although the timing of the
closures was primarily designed to manage aggregations of the most highly valued
species in the assemblage, the leopard coralgrouper (Russell 2006, 2009 , Chap.
12.9 ). Seasonal sales bans prohibit or control commercial trade during a specifi ed
period in relation to the spawning season. A sales ban attempts to control movement
of a species at the market end of the supply chain, and may be relatively easier to
enforce than at-sea patrols, because fi sh markets and restaurants can be monitored
more readily and cost-effectively. Evidence of possession is usually unequivocal; a
fi sher or wholesaler either has or does not have the species of concern.
Seasonal closures of an aggregation site as a sole management measure can be
implemented for the duration of the spawning season of the managed species, but
this does not prevent fi shing for the species outside the spawning aggregation area.
This option relies on having information on both spawning season timing and
spawning locations as well as some idea of the status of the population generally.
Temporal protection does not require all spawning sites to be known. For example,
spawning season closures on the Great Barrier Reef were determined without
knowledge of where all aggregations occur, but with information on spawning timing of key species (Russell 2006, 2009 ) . In the Bahamas during the 2008–2009
spawning season, one aggregation site for Nassau grouper (High Point) was closed
to fi shing during the spawning season (December to February), while possession
and sale of Nassau grouper during this period was not permitted throughout
the country. This measure refl ects the fact that not all aggregation locations in the
country are well-described ( www.bahamas.gov.bs ). Seasonal closures have been