372
M.W. Russell et al.
11.1 Historical Perspective
Over the past few centuries, spawning aggregations of reef fi sh species were
minimally affected by fi shing because of the limited technical capabilities and
low numbers of fi shers exploiting them. When working from small sail or rowing
boats, and having few means of preserving the catch beyond drying or salting,
people had relatively little incentive, or ability to take excessive amounts of spawning fi sh. Since aggregations persisted and, once found, could be repeatedly visited
and noteworthy amounts of fi sh taken, a valuable body of traditional knowledge of
spawning aggregations developed in some areas, such as in the western Pacifi c
(Johannes 1978 , Chap. 10 ). Throughout the tropics, aggregations were viewed as
fortuitous fi shing opportunities in certain seasons or for special cultural events,
such as village celebrations. The fi rst published report on reef fi sh spawning aggregations, of which we are aware, is from Cuba (Vilaró Díaz 1884 ) . However, a wider
public and scientifi c awareness of spawning aggregations did not develop in the
Caribbean until the early 1970s, starting with a Nassau grouper ( Epinephelus striatus )
aggregation (Smith 1972 ) . Declines in this species were already reported by the
late 1970s (Olsen and Laplace 1979 ) . In the Pacifi c, early reports of spawning
aggregation fi sheries included those of Johannes ( 1978, 1982 ) . In the Indian Ocean,
early reports of aggregation fi shing for rabbitfi sh ( Siganus sutor ) were documented
by Hornell ( 1927 ) .
Only in the last few decades has it become apparent that fi shing of aggregations
and of many aggregating fi shes in general, needs effective management to maintain
ecologically important populations of (typically) large predatory fi shes such as
groupers and snappers. The fi rst recorded management intervention in the Caribbean
occurred in 1974 in Bermuda when a seasonal spawning area fi shing closure (May
to August) for red hind ( Epinephelus guttatus ) was implemented (Luckhurst 1996,
1998 ; Luckhurst and Trott 2009 ) . In some Pacifi c Island countries traditional
knowledge, marine tenure and customary management of aggregation fi shing have
long been a traditional part of the culture (Johannes 1982 ) . However, in most countries little is known about aggregations outside of local communities, few are managed and scientifi c acknowledgement of their vulnerability has been slow to
develop. In Southeast Asia and other locations where fi shing effort is particularly
high, spawning aggregations are rarely reported, despite the presence of species
known to form them, and may well have already been extirpated (Sadovy de
Mitcheson et al. 2008 ) .
In the 1990s, management of aggregation-fi shing began on a broader scale globally along with an increasing focus on ecosystem-based management (EBM). This
was largely a reactive response to declines in overall fi sh catches and in landings
from aggregations. Initiatives for protecting aggregations in the Caribbean and tropical western Atlantic, where more than half of all known aggregations have declined
or are gone, have only come about in recent years (Luckhurst 2003 , Society for
the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations (SCRFA) database, www.SCRFA.org ,
M.W. Russell et al.
11.1 Historical Perspective
Over the past few centuries, spawning aggregations of reef fi sh species were
minimally affected by fi shing because of the limited technical capabilities and
low numbers of fi shers exploiting them. When working from small sail or rowing
boats, and having few means of preserving the catch beyond drying or salting,
people had relatively little incentive, or ability to take excessive amounts of spawning fi sh. Since aggregations persisted and, once found, could be repeatedly visited
and noteworthy amounts of fi sh taken, a valuable body of traditional knowledge of
spawning aggregations developed in some areas, such as in the western Pacifi c
(Johannes 1978 , Chap. 10 ). Throughout the tropics, aggregations were viewed as
fortuitous fi shing opportunities in certain seasons or for special cultural events,
such as village celebrations. The fi rst published report on reef fi sh spawning aggregations, of which we are aware, is from Cuba (Vilaró Díaz 1884 ) . However, a wider
public and scientifi c awareness of spawning aggregations did not develop in the
Caribbean until the early 1970s, starting with a Nassau grouper ( Epinephelus striatus )
aggregation (Smith 1972 ) . Declines in this species were already reported by the
late 1970s (Olsen and Laplace 1979 ) . In the Pacifi c, early reports of spawning
aggregation fi sheries included those of Johannes ( 1978, 1982 ) . In the Indian Ocean,
early reports of aggregation fi shing for rabbitfi sh ( Siganus sutor ) were documented
by Hornell ( 1927 ) .
Only in the last few decades has it become apparent that fi shing of aggregations
and of many aggregating fi shes in general, needs effective management to maintain
ecologically important populations of (typically) large predatory fi shes such as
groupers and snappers. The fi rst recorded management intervention in the Caribbean
occurred in 1974 in Bermuda when a seasonal spawning area fi shing closure (May
to August) for red hind ( Epinephelus guttatus ) was implemented (Luckhurst 1996,
1998 ; Luckhurst and Trott 2009 ) . In some Pacifi c Island countries traditional
knowledge, marine tenure and customary management of aggregation fi shing have
long been a traditional part of the culture (Johannes 1982 ) . However, in most countries little is known about aggregations outside of local communities, few are managed and scientifi c acknowledgement of their vulnerability has been slow to
develop. In Southeast Asia and other locations where fi shing effort is particularly
high, spawning aggregations are rarely reported, despite the presence of species
known to form them, and may well have already been extirpated (Sadovy de
Mitcheson et al. 2008 ) .
In the 1990s, management of aggregation-fi shing began on a broader scale globally along with an increasing focus on ecosystem-based management (EBM). This
was largely a reactive response to declines in overall fi sh catches and in landings
from aggregations. Initiatives for protecting aggregations in the Caribbean and tropical western Atlantic, where more than half of all known aggregations have declined
or are gone, have only come about in recent years (Luckhurst 2003 , Society for
the Conservation of Reef Fish Aggregations (SCRFA) database, www.SCRFA.org ,