348
R. Hamilton et al.
and on how the information is to be used. The problem is likely to be greater the
further back in time information is sought since memory fades with time (and age)
(Neis et al. 1999a ; Pascale et al. 2002 ) . Memory aids that assist recall relative to
special or historic events include major wars, an election, introduction of a new
regulation, a marriage or birth, etc. (e.g. Ames 2007 ) . Memory that is personal, longlasting, and related to self-esteem can be positively biased (Thompson et al. 1996 )
such that maximum or ‘best’ catches,’ largest’ fi sh, for example, may be more memorable than ‘average’ fi sh size or low catches.
10.5.5 Exaggeration and Misleading Information
Unintentionally or otherwise, interviewees may exaggerate their responses or provide information that is misleading. In our experience, this is not a major problem.
For certain sensitive issues, and if pressures on and interest in aggregations increase,
it may become one. While diffi cult to detect, long-time experience with interviewing,
internal consistency of answers (through questions that seek the same information
in different ways, or across interviewees) and simple ‘gut feeling’ can help to identify many cases of misleading responses. Interviewees may exaggerate or mislead
if they are trying to impress an interviewer, do not take the interview seriously, do
not know answers to questions, are concerned about the use to which interview outcomes will be put, are in a hurry, tired or bored, as well as other possibilities (Silver
and Campbell 2005 , RH and YSM personal observations 2005). Problems often
arise if interviews are being translated. YS had a case in Indonesia in which the
translator decided, after the fi rst few interviews, that he already knew the answers
because he heard similar responses in earlier interviews. He then started to reply
himself rather than to translate replies. Questionnaire design should include test
questions for which the answer is known and photo-aids that include non-local
species, as a “truth test”.
10.5.6 Secretiveness
It is inevitable that interviewees might be secretive about an activity on which their
livelihood depends, or with strangers. They may be competing with other fi shers,
not want to provide information indicating their income, feel threatened because they
do not understand the purpose of the questions, or be fi shing illegally. Collectively,
we have experienced little indication of secretiveness, although there are exceptions
and this is obviously diffi cult to judge. In most locations in Melanesia fi shers willingly showed researchers the locations of spawning sites once the purpose of LEK
surveys was explained. But in southern Choiseul, Solomon Islands, no one would
discuss the locations of known leopard coralgrouper, P. leopardus, squaretail coralgrouper aggregation sites; these communities have a history of keeping the locations
R. Hamilton et al.
and on how the information is to be used. The problem is likely to be greater the
further back in time information is sought since memory fades with time (and age)
(Neis et al. 1999a ; Pascale et al. 2002 ) . Memory aids that assist recall relative to
special or historic events include major wars, an election, introduction of a new
regulation, a marriage or birth, etc. (e.g. Ames 2007 ) . Memory that is personal, longlasting, and related to self-esteem can be positively biased (Thompson et al. 1996 )
such that maximum or ‘best’ catches,’ largest’ fi sh, for example, may be more memorable than ‘average’ fi sh size or low catches.
10.5.5 Exaggeration and Misleading Information
Unintentionally or otherwise, interviewees may exaggerate their responses or provide information that is misleading. In our experience, this is not a major problem.
For certain sensitive issues, and if pressures on and interest in aggregations increase,
it may become one. While diffi cult to detect, long-time experience with interviewing,
internal consistency of answers (through questions that seek the same information
in different ways, or across interviewees) and simple ‘gut feeling’ can help to identify many cases of misleading responses. Interviewees may exaggerate or mislead
if they are trying to impress an interviewer, do not take the interview seriously, do
not know answers to questions, are concerned about the use to which interview outcomes will be put, are in a hurry, tired or bored, as well as other possibilities (Silver
and Campbell 2005 , RH and YSM personal observations 2005). Problems often
arise if interviews are being translated. YS had a case in Indonesia in which the
translator decided, after the fi rst few interviews, that he already knew the answers
because he heard similar responses in earlier interviews. He then started to reply
himself rather than to translate replies. Questionnaire design should include test
questions for which the answer is known and photo-aids that include non-local
species, as a “truth test”.
10.5.6 Secretiveness
It is inevitable that interviewees might be secretive about an activity on which their
livelihood depends, or with strangers. They may be competing with other fi shers,
not want to provide information indicating their income, feel threatened because they
do not understand the purpose of the questions, or be fi shing illegally. Collectively,
we have experienced little indication of secretiveness, although there are exceptions
and this is obviously diffi cult to judge. In most locations in Melanesia fi shers willingly showed researchers the locations of spawning sites once the purpose of LEK
surveys was explained. But in southern Choiseul, Solomon Islands, no one would
discuss the locations of known leopard coralgrouper, P. leopardus, squaretail coralgrouper aggregation sites; these communities have a history of keeping the locations