333
10 The Role of Local Ecological Knowledge in the Conservation and Management...
bounds, LEK and historical anecdotal records can be useful proxies for biological
and fi shery information and can help to identify ‘shifting baselines’; long-term and
usually negative changes that are often not immediately or readily apparent to new
generations of fi shers or scientists working in a data-poor area (Ainsworth et al.
2008 ; Holm et al. 2001 ; Pauly 1995 ) . A testament to the value of fi shers LEK is its
increasing application in marine research, species assessments and planning processes that are linked with conservation and management programmes (Sadovy and
Cheung 2003 ; Aswani and Hamilton 2004 ; Aswani and Lauer 2006 ; Smith and
Hamilton 2006 ; Stanley and Rice 2007 ; Sadovy de Mitcheson et al. 2008 ; Almany
et al. 2010 ; Game et al. 2011 ) .
One of the most widely applied uses of LEK in the marine setting is its role in the
research of Fish Spawning Aggregations (FSAs). In many locations, fi shers have
known of FSAs for centuries or have experienced seasonal gluts in landings subsequently identifi ed as FSAs (Johannes 1978 ; Colin, et al. 2003 ) . In recognition of
this, and because of the practical diffi culties of discovering FSAs that typically form
at highly localized areas for brief periods of time, biologists and coastal managers
have long drawn on the local knowledge of fi shers in the initial stages of their fi eldwork (Johannes, et al. 1999 ; Robinson et al. 2004 ; Hamilton et al. 2005a, 2011 ;
Sadovy de Mitcheson et al. 2008 ) . Indeed, most aggregations of commercial fi shes
known today were initially identifi ed from descriptions of fi shers. The value of this
knowledge is heavily dependent on the methodology used to collect, process and
validate it and the way(s) in which it is integrated into science-based management.
Our objectives in this chapter are to evaluate the methods for collecting, assessing and applying LEK, using lessons from our own work and numerous other case
studies, and to develop a robust methodology for the documentation of FSAs using
LEK. We consider the collection and validation of information, and integration of
LEK with scientifi c knowledge. We also examine pitfalls and identify caveats in the
collection and use of LEK.
10.2 Documenting Local Ecological Knowledge
The methods used for documenting LEK derive from the social sciences and require
some understanding of the language and cultural context in which the interactions
take place (Briggs 1986 ; Mailhot 1993 ; Neis et al. 1999a ) . For instance, social
scientists interested in fi shers’ knowledge typically use ethnographic methods such
as interviewing and participant observation . Interview formats range from structured
to unstructured, while participant observation requires that the researcher live in the
local society among the resource users and is actively partaking in fi shing or related
activities. In Melanesia, these techniques have documented extremely detailed LEK
e.g. (Hviding 1996 ; Aswani 1997 ; Foale 1998 ) . Participant observation requires a
large investment of time within a very narrow geographical area. Consequently
most studies of LEK with a predetermined conservation or management focus
rely predominantly on interviews. Other approaches to information collection
10 The Role of Local Ecological Knowledge in the Conservation and Management...
bounds, LEK and historical anecdotal records can be useful proxies for biological
and fi shery information and can help to identify ‘shifting baselines’; long-term and
usually negative changes that are often not immediately or readily apparent to new
generations of fi shers or scientists working in a data-poor area (Ainsworth et al.
2008 ; Holm et al. 2001 ; Pauly 1995 ) . A testament to the value of fi shers LEK is its
increasing application in marine research, species assessments and planning processes that are linked with conservation and management programmes (Sadovy and
Cheung 2003 ; Aswani and Hamilton 2004 ; Aswani and Lauer 2006 ; Smith and
Hamilton 2006 ; Stanley and Rice 2007 ; Sadovy de Mitcheson et al. 2008 ; Almany
et al. 2010 ; Game et al. 2011 ) .
One of the most widely applied uses of LEK in the marine setting is its role in the
research of Fish Spawning Aggregations (FSAs). In many locations, fi shers have
known of FSAs for centuries or have experienced seasonal gluts in landings subsequently identifi ed as FSAs (Johannes 1978 ; Colin, et al. 2003 ) . In recognition of
this, and because of the practical diffi culties of discovering FSAs that typically form
at highly localized areas for brief periods of time, biologists and coastal managers
have long drawn on the local knowledge of fi shers in the initial stages of their fi eldwork (Johannes, et al. 1999 ; Robinson et al. 2004 ; Hamilton et al. 2005a, 2011 ;
Sadovy de Mitcheson et al. 2008 ) . Indeed, most aggregations of commercial fi shes
known today were initially identifi ed from descriptions of fi shers. The value of this
knowledge is heavily dependent on the methodology used to collect, process and
validate it and the way(s) in which it is integrated into science-based management.
Our objectives in this chapter are to evaluate the methods for collecting, assessing and applying LEK, using lessons from our own work and numerous other case
studies, and to develop a robust methodology for the documentation of FSAs using
LEK. We consider the collection and validation of information, and integration of
LEK with scientifi c knowledge. We also examine pitfalls and identify caveats in the
collection and use of LEK.
10.2 Documenting Local Ecological Knowledge
The methods used for documenting LEK derive from the social sciences and require
some understanding of the language and cultural context in which the interactions
take place (Briggs 1986 ; Mailhot 1993 ; Neis et al. 1999a ) . For instance, social
scientists interested in fi shers’ knowledge typically use ethnographic methods such
as interviewing and participant observation . Interview formats range from structured
to unstructured, while participant observation requires that the researcher live in the
local society among the resource users and is actively partaking in fi shing or related
activities. In Melanesia, these techniques have documented extremely detailed LEK
e.g. (Hviding 1996 ; Aswani 1997 ; Foale 1998 ) . Participant observation requires a
large investment of time within a very narrow geographical area. Consequently
most studies of LEK with a predetermined conservation or management focus
rely predominantly on interviews. Other approaches to information collection