398
Ó. Zúñiga et al.
bution (Osorio et al. 1979; Guerra et al. 1999). This species is a representative of
the Peruvian faunistic province and its distribution is restricted to temperate waters
of the north. Due to its thermal sensitivity and endemic character, this species is
very sensible to commercial exploitation (Ibáñez et al. 2009). This risk is enhanced
as this octopus is one of the principal benthic resources of the artisanal fishery in
northern Chile (Rocha and Vega 2003) and the fishery has been increasing over time
due to a strong demand for cephalopods in international markets (Hunsicker and
Essington 2010). Also, this species is easily captured using very basic gear such as
hooks (in the intertidal) and semi-autonomous diving (in the subtidal zone), which
makes this octopus very vulnerable to increments in fishing effort (Defeo and Castilla 1998).
Over decades, Octopus mimus was identified as O� vulgaris Cuvier 1797, being
redescribed as O� mimus based on anatomic, morphometric and meristic characterization using adult individuals. This distinction between species was also verified in
pelagic larval stages (Castro et al. 2002) and by ontogenetic studies (Warnke 1999).
Molecular analysis showed a 12.7 % of nucleotide divergence of the mitochondrial
cytochrome oxidase III gen (Warnke et al. 2000; Söller et al. 2000). Randomly
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) showed different electrophoretic patterns in
total DNA (Warnke et al. 2004). The genetic study by Pérez-Losada et al. (2002)
suggests that O� mimus and O� maya belong to a different co-family distinct to that
of O� vulgaris, as a result of allopatric speciation associated to the geomorphologic
lifting of Central America. Apparently, the formation of the Panama Isthmus during
the late Miocene and early Pliocene interrupted the genetic flow between Pacific
and Atlantic populations (Porta 2003). Recently, Galleguillos et al. (2011) showed a
high polymorphism in nine different loci of O� mimus using microsatellite markers.
These results can help to address population genetic studies and ecological, conservation and fishery management issues.
Due to the high fishery and demand for this species, its aquaculture has been
considered as a technological opportunity to satisfy market demands and to reduce
fishing pressure. According to the Chilean National Fishery Service (SERNAPESCA), between 2001 and 2010 an average of 2,078t of octopus were caught mainly
in the Antofagasta region. The average value of exports of this species reached ca.
$ 10 million USD in the past 5-year period.
21.2 State of the Culture
O� mimus culture is in an early experimental stage and this research is carried out
by Chilean and Peruvian research centres and universities (Uriarte et al. 2011). So
far, octopus rearing in captivity (in tanks or floating cages) is the most promising
advance on culture. Animals are fed with live and/or frozen food based on paste
preparations using mollusc, crustaceans and fish (Olivares et al. 1996; Cortez et al.
1999; Baltazar et al. 2000; Carrasco and Guisado 2010; Zúñiga et al. 2011). However, one problem of these techniques is the mortality produced during fights among
animals for territory or refuge and the high incidence of cannibalism. This is com-
Ó. Zúñiga et al.
bution (Osorio et al. 1979; Guerra et al. 1999). This species is a representative of
the Peruvian faunistic province and its distribution is restricted to temperate waters
of the north. Due to its thermal sensitivity and endemic character, this species is
very sensible to commercial exploitation (Ibáñez et al. 2009). This risk is enhanced
as this octopus is one of the principal benthic resources of the artisanal fishery in
northern Chile (Rocha and Vega 2003) and the fishery has been increasing over time
due to a strong demand for cephalopods in international markets (Hunsicker and
Essington 2010). Also, this species is easily captured using very basic gear such as
hooks (in the intertidal) and semi-autonomous diving (in the subtidal zone), which
makes this octopus very vulnerable to increments in fishing effort (Defeo and Castilla 1998).
Over decades, Octopus mimus was identified as O� vulgaris Cuvier 1797, being
redescribed as O� mimus based on anatomic, morphometric and meristic characterization using adult individuals. This distinction between species was also verified in
pelagic larval stages (Castro et al. 2002) and by ontogenetic studies (Warnke 1999).
Molecular analysis showed a 12.7 % of nucleotide divergence of the mitochondrial
cytochrome oxidase III gen (Warnke et al. 2000; Söller et al. 2000). Randomly
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) showed different electrophoretic patterns in
total DNA (Warnke et al. 2004). The genetic study by Pérez-Losada et al. (2002)
suggests that O� mimus and O� maya belong to a different co-family distinct to that
of O� vulgaris, as a result of allopatric speciation associated to the geomorphologic
lifting of Central America. Apparently, the formation of the Panama Isthmus during
the late Miocene and early Pliocene interrupted the genetic flow between Pacific
and Atlantic populations (Porta 2003). Recently, Galleguillos et al. (2011) showed a
high polymorphism in nine different loci of O� mimus using microsatellite markers.
These results can help to address population genetic studies and ecological, conservation and fishery management issues.
Due to the high fishery and demand for this species, its aquaculture has been
considered as a technological opportunity to satisfy market demands and to reduce
fishing pressure. According to the Chilean National Fishery Service (SERNAPESCA), between 2001 and 2010 an average of 2,078t of octopus were caught mainly
in the Antofagasta region. The average value of exports of this species reached ca.
$ 10 million USD in the past 5-year period.
21.2 State of the Culture
O� mimus culture is in an early experimental stage and this research is carried out
by Chilean and Peruvian research centres and universities (Uriarte et al. 2011). So
far, octopus rearing in captivity (in tanks or floating cages) is the most promising
advance on culture. Animals are fed with live and/or frozen food based on paste
preparations using mollusc, crustaceans and fish (Olivares et al. 1996; Cortez et al.
1999; Baltazar et al. 2000; Carrasco and Guisado 2010; Zúñiga et al. 2011). However, one problem of these techniques is the mortality produced during fights among
animals for territory or refuge and the high incidence of cannibalism. This is com-